PROFESSIONAL NOTES.
Prepared by Lieut.-Commander W.B. Wells, U.S. Navy
SHIPS OF WAR, BUDGETS AND PERSONNEL.
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.
Moreno Launched for Argentine Navy.—The Argentine battleship Moreno, planned to be one of the most formidable Dreadnoughts in the world, was launched this afternoon from the yard of the New York Shipbuilding Company at Camden, N. J.
The keel of the ship was laid on July 9, 1910.
The only other vessel now afloat equal to the Moreno is her sister ship, the Rivadavia, recently launched by the Fore River Ship Building Company at Quincy, Mass. The Moreno represents the latest development of the 12-inch gun battleship. She is greater in point of length and displacement than the Utah and Florida, the largest ships in the American Navy.
According to the builders the Moreno and Rivadavia are even larger than the New York, the keel of which was recently laid in New York, and which will have a displacement of 27,000 tons. British designers and working to oustrip these vessels, planning the Queen Mary with a displacement of 29,000 tons.
The Moreno will carry twelve 12-inch guns. Her American peers in this respect are the Arkansas, built in Camden, and the Wyoming, constructed by the Cramps in Philadelphia, neither of which are yet in commission; the Austrian Viribus Unitis, the German Thuringen, the Japanese Kawaehi, the Russian Sevastopol, the Brazilian Sao Paulo, the Italian Dante Alighieri, and the French Courbet and Jean Bart. The Jean Bart was launched September 22, 1911.
The next step forward in battleship building, so far as armament is concerned, is a reduction of two in the number of main guns, at the same time increasing the caliber to 14 inches. The New York will have ten 14-inch guns. A ship in the same class is under construction in Great Britain.
The speed of the Moreno will exceed vessels of her class which average 21 knots an hour. The Moreno under her contract, will have to reach 22 ½ knots. She is expected to develop 40,000 horse power. The engines of the New York are designed for 32,000.
The Moreno and Rivadavia are 595 feet long over all, while the Utah and Florida are 521 ½ feet. The Argentine ships have a breadth of 98 feet, and will have a normal draft of 27 feet.
The contract for the two ships was awarded to the Bethlehem Steel Company, which sublet the work of construction. The Bethlehem Company is supplying the armor and armament for both ships. Each battleship will cost about $12,000,000.
Different Types of Torpedo-Boats.—The Argentine government has let contracts to foreign shipyards for the construction of a certain number of torpedo-boats. These contracts have been divided among the French, German and English shipyards. It is to be noted that these boats are to be heterogeneous in their exterior design, following that of the shipyards in which they are to be built. Thus, in the French type, the keel line, which does not extend to the stern, curves upward suddenly, while the Catamarca and the Jujuy, built in Germany, have a keel line continuing horizontally to the stern. The design of the stern in the French type has the advantage of diminishing the resistance of the bottom, and consequently of affording a greater speed.
CHILI.
A contract has been signed by the Chilian Minister with Messrs. Samuel White, of Cowes, for the construction of six new destroyers for the Chilian Government. The vessels will cost about £1,000,000.—Shipping Illustrated.
FRANCE.
Speed of Battleships.—The 18,400-ton Danton and Condorcet and the 14,000-ton cruiser Rousseau, have arrived at Toulon, having accomplished the Brittany-Toulon run in 99 hours—34 hours at 17 knots and 65 at 16 knots. Although no attempt was made by Admiral de Lapeyrere to force his new ships or to establish a record, this voyage, accomplished under easy conditions, constitutes all the same a creditable performance and will help to confirm the high reputation which French battleships have enjoyed for steaming since the seven days' run at over 16 knots (Brest-New York, 1909) of the Le Pord division (Liberie, Justice, Verile). Battleships whose continuous sea speed is within two knots of their designed speed must be pronounced a success in the matter of steaming! The Parsons turbines gave entire satisfaction. The only unsatisfactory points mentioned arc the abnormal quantity of smoke produced by the five funnels (!) of the Dantons and the six funnels (!) of the Rousseau, and the rather heavy coal consumption, 357 tons per day for the Dantons, 363 for the Condorcet.—The Naval and Military Record.
The French Navy.—The French Naval estimates for 1912 have recently been submitted to the French Budget Commission. The outlay proposed for the year is 17,070,322/. The credits actually voted for 1911 amounted to 16,657,225/. The increase proposed for 1912 is, accordingly, 413,097. The expenditure of 17,070,322/., set against 1912 does not, however, include anything for the construction of the fifth and sixth ironclads, which, according to next year's French naval program, should be laid down during the year. If the program is adhered to as regards these two ironclads, a further outlay of 275,585/. will be required.—Engineering, October 13, 1911.
Efficient Gunnery.—Much satisfaction has been elicited in naval circles at the creditable performances the Deuxieme and Troisieme Escadres have achieved during their recent battle practice, against fixed targets, off the Hyeres Islands. The high percentage of hits obtained (up to 57 per cent) testifies to the growing efficiency of fleet gunner especially as the range, usually 6000 to 7500 meters, had been increase to over 8000 meters, in compliance with the instructions of Minister of Marine Delcasse, who aims at introducing gradually in the Gallic Navy the realistic and progressive methods of the British and American fleets. The test afforded an opportunity to compare together, from the point of view of battle efficiency, the Brest and Toulon squadrons, which we called to give a measure of their firing ability under conditions alike for both. As was to be expected, the Northern Escadre, used to training the choppy waters of the Atlantic, had no difficulty in asserting its superiority over its southern rival, which is much wanting in sea practice, and has long had to spend its time between Toulon harbor and coastal cruise at economical speed (a course quite obligatory in these times of dear Welsh coal!) in the usually calm waters of the "Golfe de Lion."
The battleship Justice nearly beat with her big guns her record of 50 per cent hits (60 per cent during the first four minutes) of last year Afterwards in order of merit come the battleships Gaulois, Charlemagne Democratic (that has long detained the gunnery cup), and Jaureguiberry. Of these six vessels, four belong to the Brest Squadron, a significant he that has not escaped the attention of French naval men, who are more than ever, since the Liberte disaster, of opinion that the right and normal place for a fleet is at sea. Also the successful ships have all fine records to maintain, which points to strenuous work and to keen emulation among the personnel. It is obvious that the "gunnery fever," introduced by Admiral Germinet in the battle force, has not yet subsided, and the results obtained show what the Gallic fleet will achieve once it has better powder and has adopted the British custom of practicing under all conditions of weather. Very judiciously, Mons. Delcasse has decided to reward with promotions and distinctions the zeal and competence of the successful gunnery staffs.—Naval and Military Record.
Shipbuilding Works at La Seyne.—The French shipbuilding from which is known as Les Forges et Chantiers de la Mediterranee occupies, owing to the number and size of its shipbuilding slips and its up-to-date equipment, a foremost position among the French shipbuilding undertakings. It has establishments at La Seyne, Marseilles and Havre. That at La Seyne was founded in 1857, and in it shipbuilding only is carried out. It, together with an engine works at Marseilles, is known as the South Works. The North-West Works at Havre include engine shops as well as a shipbuilding yard.
Both yards are equipped with facilities for the construction of ships of all sorts, from the small torpedo boat to the big battleship. Large numbers of vessels, both naval and mercantile, have been constructed in them for the Brazilian, Chilian, Greek, French, Japanese and Russian navies. Among the most important may be mentioned he two French battleships Patrie and Justice of 15,635 tons each.
The main establishment of the Forges et Chantiers de la Mediterranee is at La Seyne, and it is our intention to describe it alone in the present article. It covers 22 hectares (=55 acres), with a frontage of 1200m. (=3940 feet) to Toulon roads. At the center of the yard is a fitting-out dock, 135m. (=443 feet) in length, and 35 m. (=115 feet) in width, with a sufficient depth as to accommodate the largest ships which will be built for many years to come. The head and drawing offices are housed in a big building facing the fitting-out dock. The drawing office staff consists of no less than 150 men, There are seven slips, two of which have an available length of 200 m. (=656 feet), and are built of masonry. Plates, beams, etc., are hoisted over the slips by powerful revolving electric cranes. The total covered area of the works is of 50,000 square meters (= 54,680 square yards), a noteworthy figure for a yard lying on the Mediterranean coast, where seasons are not severe. There are five main departments in this yard. They are as follows: The smith's, wood-working, artillery and armament, turbine and boiler departments.—The Engineer.
Chances in the French Naval College.—There is now in progress a very important change in connection with the French Naval College, which is devoted to the training of naval officers. Interest is added to this change which, in the first instance, is one of locality, by the fact that it unquestionably paves the way for more considerable alteration, not only in the program of admission to the school, but especially in the education and training of officers, somewhat on the lines followed in various foreign countries.
It will be remembered that, prior to 1839, the school—or, to be more exact, the Royal College, which served to train the future naval officers— was situated in Angouleme, in the interior of the country. It is true that from 1827 the college was completed by a training-ship for pupils who were finishing their special studies, while towards the end of 1830 the naval school was installed, and up to the present time has remained, on board a vessel anchored in the roadstead of Brest. Various ships have succeeded each other in thus affording shelter to the naval school and its pupils, and since 1841 the two vessels which have been assigned for his duty have successively taken the name of Borda. It is for this reason that in naval circles the school is known as "Borda." The ship which now accommodates the school—always in the roadstead of Brest, and always under the same conditions—is an old transport formerly called the Intrepide which was appointed to this service in 1889. Needless to say, the Borda, to call it by its generic name, in spite of the quiet which it enjoys in the sheltered roadstead of Brest, is becoming very old and decrepit, for, before being used for a naval school, it had done service as a transport. It is now forty years since it was first navigated.
It has therefore become absolutely essential to replace this vessel; which might be done either by substituting a new ship for this old Intrepide, or merely by installing the naval school elsewhere. The latter course is the one which has been decided upon, and the decision to abandon the classic ship anchored in the roadstead of Brest is due to Admiral Boue de Lapeyrere. Admiral Boue de Lapeyrere has brought to his Ministry a special knowledge bearing upon this question—he was formerly Maritime Prefect at Brest—and he has been able to make clear the state of decay of the Borda, and the inconvenience which would result from continuing the naval school, in its enlarged, transformed, and improved state, in a boat which is necessarily too small for the requisite practical installations. It is certainly difficult to arrange on board a ship, be it what it may, for the commodious spaces required by the scientific and experimental education which it is now proposed to give to naval students. Moreover, where the pupils are numerous, hygiene is seriously sacrificed on board such a ship. In establishing a school on land, however, it is a simple matter so to construct new buildings that they are well adapted for their purposes, and afford the best conditions for health, as well as for the instruction of future officers.
Complete plans have now been prepared of the building about to be erected for the lodgment of the school and its pupils, and it is estimated that this building will be completed in two or three years, although it is probable, as almost invariably happens in such matters, there will be some delay. This naval college on land—a novelty for France—will be built on the rocky promontory which terminates the right bank of the River Penfeld, upon which is erected the naval arsenal of Brest. The plans of the new school have been based on the detail suggestions furnished by an officer who best understands the needs of the case; that is to say, by the present commander of the Borda, or naval school. The school will be built on an upland of about 4 hectares (10 acres), to which it is intended to annex a piece of land of about 10 hectares (24 ¾ acres), planted with trees. This latter will constitute a park for exercising the corps, and for promenades for the students, and will accordingly afford the best hygienic conditions. These two pieces of land, now to belong to the school, will be separated by the moat of the Brest fortifications, and the moat itself will be utilized for the purpose of games, to which adequate attention will be paid in the future scheme for the occupation of the students' time. The buildings will comprise three parts, one of which will be a large round pavilion, containing the dining-room, and overlooking the roadstead and the commercial port, etc. It will be possible, in this new school, to install all the requisites which hygiene demands—bath-rooms, shower-baths, lavatories and dressing-rooms, which could not, without difficulty, be provided in the holds and store-rooms of the old boat which now serves to lodge the naval officers' school. In the dormitories, according to present intention, the hammock, the old classic bed of the ships of former days, will be preserved. Large rooms containing models will be installed, together with chemical and physical laboratories, for the instruction of students, in order that they may become scientific and completely equipped officers. Modifications have already been introduced into the program of the naval school in the direction of making it more severe. The authorities even contemplate—although, in our opinion, this would be going too far as yet—changes in the program for the entrance examination; this program would approximate to that of the Polytechnic School, and would embrace a larger proportion of special mathematics This kind of knowledge which has not always proved of special advantage to the mining and bridge engineers, and other functionaries, turned out by the Polytechnic school, would be dearly acquired if it interfered with the practical training of the naval officer of the future.
It is quite understood that while the future naval officers will be established on land, they will be kept in intimate contact with the sea and the ships, and with all practical applications. Having in view the advantage of practical studies, visits will be paid to the arsenal, which will be a near neighbor of the school, and these should prove very profitable; especially visits to armored vessels of every type, which either stay in or pass along the roadstead of Brest. The students will thus be able to acquire a precise knowledge of naval and military material in even form, whereas they could learn nothing of this in the old ship in which they have been, and are at present lodged. They will be regularly required to maneuver a modern protected cruiser, no longer using for this purpose the old-fashioned despatch vessel, which they now move up and down the roadstead from time to time. Every three months they will go out to sea in the protected cruiser, and they will, in particular, navigate the waters of the Gulf of Gascony, where they will make acquaintance with a sea which is almost always disturbed, and also with a true sailor's life. Moreover, their practical maritime education will be completed by navigating and service in craft of all sorts, especially a certain number of torpedo-boats, which will be placed at their disposal. At the present time, in order to familiarize them with the sea and the officer's life, the students of the Borda are placed on an old transport called the Dugay-Drouin, in which, on leaving the school, they make a cruise, but in which there are no modern appliances. When the alterations to which we have referred have become effective, the students, their school training ended, will embark on a fine armored cruiser. This boat will probably be the Jeanne d'Arc, of 10,000 tons, capable of steaming 23 knots, with three engines developing collectively 28,000 horse-power. This boat, moreover, is provided with artillery in the turrets and casemates. It will constitute a school of practical application.
The students leaving the college to become officers will thus receive technical and military instruction which will correspond to the need of modern life, and the young officers will then be able to carry out certain duties from the moment they embark. It should be mentioned that even now, under the control of the present commander of the naval school— badly equipped as that school may be—the pupils have succeeded in getting into touch with modern practice in navigation. They have thus learned to manage torpedoes, and, in a recent inspection, the inspecting vice-admiral made an experimental trip to sea on a destroyer which was armed and equipped solely by the pupils of the naval school. All the duties on board were executed by the students, as well for maneuvering the craft as for working the engines and stoking, with the aid of coal trimmers who were also no other than future officers. In this there is instruction of the most valuable kind, which should be enlarged and continued. The transformation of the French naval school, from the point of view of material, will undoubtedly bring about a modification in the training of future officers, and in the spirit which dominates their education. As in England, the United States, and Italy, the French naval authorities are seriously considering the abandonment of a system which places on board two sets of officers absolutely different, the one occupied with navigation and the means of combat, the other with the management of machinery. It is more than probable that, in view of the practical direction which will be given to the school on land, with its new laboratories and perfected means of study, a single body of naval officers will be established, who will unite all the special qualifications required in crews, as well those of mechanics and stokers, as those of combatants, boatmen, gunners, and torpedo-officers. Now there are, below the naval officer properly so described, men who are called "adjutants principaux," who have specialized in a particular trade—mechanic, gunner, or torpedo officer, and who, having "achieved" their rank, are capable of attending to certain details of which it is possible to relieve the naval officers. In this relation, the Minister of Marine has quite recently announced his intention to create a body of officers of the crews of fleets who will be concerned with part of the minor duties now required from officers properly so called, and who will have a position distinctly superior in authority and advantages to that of the present petty officers. We have here then, altogether, an assemblage of changes, some of which have already accomplished and appear likely to yield good results.—Engineering.
GERMANY.
The Kaiserin, New Warship, Launched—Kiel, Saturday, November 12, 1911. The new battleship which replaces the old Hagen was launched today in the presence of Emperor William and Empress Augusta Victoria and christened the Kaiserin by Princess Victoria Louise.
Grand Admiral von Koester, who was second ranking officer in the international fleet assembled at New York for the Hudson-Fulton celebration in the fall of 1909, made the speech of the day.
The new warship, he said, was intended to help maintain an honorable peace, which was desired by the German nation, but should war come the Kaiserin would be found like Her Majesty's sons, who were always ready joyfully to offer their lives for the fatherland.
The Helgoland, which is the battleship of corresponding date to the Moltke, appears to be a very distinct improvement on the Nassau class, and possesses at first sight a much less cumbrous exterior appearance, more in keeping with that of a cruiser, unless she is seen end on, when the immense breadth becomes very striking. To the English eye the masts appear very light, but then the Germans accept bridge-level control platforms, and only signalling is necessary to arrange for.—Engineering.
Germany’s New Dreadnought.—By the commissioning last August of the Helgoland Germany now possesses a Dreadnought squadron of seven battleships. The Helgoland is a sister ship of the Thuringen and Ostfriesland, and these, with the unfinished Oldenburg, form the class of super-Dreadnoughts. The Helgoland was laid down at the Howaldt yard, Kiel, in December, 1908, and launched in September, 1909, so that her construction period has been about 33 months. Her length is 546 feet, breadth 93 feet 6 inches, draft 26 feet 10 ¾ inches, and displacement 23,133 tons. She is propelled by triple-expansion reciprocating engines, calculated to give a speed of 20.5 knots. As compared with the earlier ships of the Nassau class the Helgoland displaces an additional 4000 tons. The armament is also heavier. The Helgoland carries twelve 12-inch (Nassau 11.1-inch) guns mounted in six turrets, fourteen 5.9-inch, and fourteen guns of smaller caliber, along with six torpedo tubes. Usually she will carry 900 tons of coal, but the quantity can be increased to 3000 tons if necessary.
The German battle cruiser Moltke, which underwent her contract steam trial last week, is reported to have attained the record speed of 29 ½ knots, though for how many hours is not stated. This cruiser is a sister ship to the Von der Tann, and has been built by the same firm. She was laid down in April, 1909, launched one year later, and should be ready for service next month—a period of 29 months from the laying of the keel. The maximum speed of her sister ship is believed to be 28 knots, or a trifle less. It is given in the Navy League Annual as 27.63. The much higher speed stated to have been maintained by the Moltke can only be explained by the horse-power being in excess of that of the Von der Tann. In any case, it was a magnificent performance, and shows that the German engineers have nothing to learn from us. So the competition in horsepower goes on, and it involves an enormously increased outlay upon engines. We set the pace ourselves with our first Dreadnought cruisers, and now, presumably, we shall be compelled to produce armored cruisers of 30 knots. However much one may deplore this costly competition in engine design, England cannot afford to allow any rival Power to possess cruisers of superior speed, and for this reason the ensuing trial of the 70,000 horse-power cruiser Lion will possess more than ordinary interest.—Naval and Military Gazette.
The design of the cruiser Moltke has at last been published in Germany, though the details have been public property for a long time. The vessel carries eight twin turrets on the upper deck, disposed as in the Von der Tann, as well as the main deck turret aft, situated below the after center-line upper deck one, but for which the vessel would appear very similar to her predecessor. Although she also possesses only two funnels, she is confidently expected to exceed the 79,800 shaft horse-power of the Von der Tann. The length on the water line is stated to be 610 feet, which is some 70 feet less than that of the Lion, the displacement being 23,500 tons. A full water-line belt is formed and the midship armor is carried up to the upper deck, and covers the 6-inch gun battery of six guns a side. The vessel will proceed on trial during the next few weeks.—Engineering.
The Naval Program.—Germany's Naval Program for the six months between October next and April, 1912, includes the following, says the Berlin correspondent of The Globe.
- Ships to be ready on April 1 next: Oldenburg (battleship), Goeben (first-class armored cruiser), and Breslau (small armored cruiser). All three ships must be in a condition to perform their speed trials at that date.
- Completion of the armament of the Dreadnought battleships Kaiser and Friedrich der Grosse and of the second-class cruisers Magdeburg and Strassburg.
- Continuation of construction, for launching, of Erzatz-Mgir, ErsatzOdin, and Ersatz-Hagcn (battleship), and of No. 1 (cruiser).
- Laying down of battleship S and the two battleships to replace the Kurfurst-Wilhelm and the Weissenburg, the crusier K, two small cruisers, and an undetermined number of torpedo-boats and submarines.
Cruiser Exceeds 29 Knots.—A Renter's telegram from Berlin says: While on her trials the new German cruiser Moltke attained a speed of 29.5 knots.
Berlin, September 9. "In all silence," as the German phrase runs, torpedo-nets have reappeared here, and if present plans hold good every large armored ship will be so fitted. The nets finally adopted, after a long series of experiments, differ in many respects from the Bullivant variety, being lighter and, it is claimed, more rapidly handled. The four Nassaus have already donned their "crinolines," and a like equipment has been given to the three Ostfrieslands. It is worth noting that the nets have returned in the face of heated opposition from naval officers, and curious stories are heard of the aversion with which commanders view the innovation. They still maintain that torpedo-nets are a source of danger rather than protection, owing to the extreme likelihood of shell fire wrecking the apparatus and of its becoming involved in the propellers and rudder. These objections deserve consideration, coming as they do from progressive and practical seamen; but it is doubtful whether they will avail against the decision of the authorities.
The Blucher’s Reputation.—Some excellent steaming performances and a record of good behavior since her commission in the autumn of 1909 have done much to reconcile German public opinion to that product of a strange misunderstanding, the armored cruiser Blucher. So well, indeed, has this boat shaped under all conditions that in service circles it is doubted whether the Admiralty is well advised in contemplating, as it is reported to be, a change in the armament by substituting single 9.4-inch, or even 11-inch guns for the double fore and aft 8.2-inch turrets. There can be no question that the vessel is structurally capable of carrying heavier weapons, since a certain margin of strength was allowed in the early stage of building, when the Admiralty was still undecided as to what armament should be put on board pending reliable particulars of the British Invisibles, which were then on the stocks. At the same time there is a well-grounded feeling that reconstruction, however slight, jeopardizes the speed and other qualities of a ship, and as the Blucher has acquitted herself so admirably hitherto, the advocates of leaving well alone may carry their point.
Shipbuilding Resources.—Since the echoes of the agitation of 1909 died away little has been heard of acceleration of new construction in German yards, and yet it is a fact that the three battleships of the Ostfriesland class have all been commissioned well in advance of the official dates. According to a statement made some time ago by the Marine Administration, the Helgoland was due for commission on October 1 as the seventeenth battleship of the High Seas fleet. As a matter of fact, however, this vessel was commissioned on August 23. The Thuringen entered the service on July 1, and the Ostfriesland on August 1, both several weeks in advance of the dates forecasted. Germany is, of course, rather to be praised than blamed for this evidence of the efficiency of her shipbuilding establishments, particularly as their is every reason to believe that the official laying-down dates were adhered to. As a result of this energy the fleet which was reviewed by the Kaiser this week included seven Dreadnoughts. The moral attached to the circumstances is that the potentiality of German yards in the output of warships should not be under-estimated. They are undoubtedly in a position to drastically reduce the present average building period, and if the need arose they could press the best British yards very closely in point of rapid construction.
Types of Turbines.—The three turbine battleships authorized this year, and for which contracts were recently placed, will each have different machinery installations. The Ersatz K. Friedrich Wilhelm, to be built at the Vulkan yard, Hamburg, will be driven by Allgemeine Elektrizitars-Gesellschaft turbines to be manufactured in the Vulcan workshops. Parsons turbines have been chosen for the battleship "S," building at Wilhelmshaven, though the type adopted in this case differs considerably from the original Parsons system, certain modifications which make for simplicity having been introduced. The batch of six large torpedo-boats constructing at the Krupp Germania yard will have similar engines. In the case of the Ersatz Weissenburg, laid down at the Weser yard, a novelty will be introduced in the shape of turbines constructed by the Bergmann Elektrizitatswerken, of Berlin, for which a great economy in fuel consumption is claimed. Furthermore, the usual cruising turbines are rendered unnecessary. It is thus evident that the Marine Amt has no intention of resting on its oars in the matter of turbine development, albeit the wisdom of introducing so many divergent types of propelling machinery into the navy is open to question.—Naval and Military Record.
According to Nauticus, the battleships of the Helgoland class—Helgoland, Ostfriesland, Thuringen and Oldenburg—have a displacement of 22,800 tons, and an armament of twelve 12.2-inch, fourteen 5.9-inch, and fourteen 3.4-inch guns. The main armament of these vessels had long been known, or accurately surmised, but 6.7-inch had generally been assigned to the secondary battery. At one time there were, too, sketches in certain English papers, purporting to be drawn from visual evidence, showing four triple turrets. The guns, however, are arranged in the same manner as those of the Nassau.
The cruisers Moltke and Goeben are stated to displace 23,000 tons and to have a designed speed of 25.5 knots with 50,000 horse-power turbines. The armament is given as ten 11-inch, twelve 5.9-inch and twelve 3.4inch, the arrangement being generally the same as in the Von der Tann, with an additional turret superposed forward of the aftermost. The disposition is thus almost identical with that in the Hercules and Colossus, six guns bearing ahead, eight astern, and ten on either beam.
New Torpedo Net Equipment.—Berlin, October 7.—There is every reason to believe that the prejudice with which German naval men originally viewed the reintroduction of torpedo nets has been overcome to a great extent by the many qualities of the new apparatus. The nets arc operated by an auxiliary engine more rapidly, it is said, than is possible by manual labor. Great strength is a feature of the material, which offers a stout resistance to any kind of cutting appliance. The net hangs in a double fold, being kept in place by an entirely new type of boom, so arranged as to keep the net in proper position even when the vessel is steaming at a fair rate. All technical details of this innovation are still a secret, but it is known to be giving complete satisfaction. The reappearance of net defence in German ships shows that the authorities have at length come to recognize that other Powers are paying great attention to the development of the torpedo as a weapon of offence. Hitherto there was reason to suppose that the Marine Office looked upon the torpedo as its own special possession, to be exploited to its utmost capacity as a means of cheaply reducing the battleship strength of an enemy superior in numbers. One heard constantly of "the bolt from the blue," in the shape of an audacious torpedo attack on some great base of the unsuspecting foe, a plan which presupposed no very great watchfulness on the part of the latter. At the same time, little was done to give German battleships themselves am protection against this form of assault, seemingly because it was thought they had nothing of the kind to fear. That Great Britain and France both had a huge flotilla of surface and submarine torpedo vessels which, it might be assumed, had not been built to rust in dockyards, was a circumstance of no importance. It looks as though saner councils have prevailed, however, as is demonstrated by the new net equipment. No doubt the ever increasing chances of the successful employment of torpedoes by "capital ships" against "capital ships" were taken into consideration. Much that has been published on the torpedo armament of new German armored ships is open to question, but it is quite clear that progress has been made in this as in other branches.—Naval and Military Record.
The Fortnight in Germany.—Summary: Grand maneuvers and naval review at Kiel. Promotion of admirals and conferring of honorary distinctions. Trial trip of the armored cruiser Moltke; its characteristics. Order for the construction of the armored cruiser K. Views on the speech of M. Delcasse, French Minister of Marine. Berlin. August 15. 1911. The autumn maneuvers of the German fleet, which sailed on the twenty-eighth of August, began with exercises in the waters lying between the Bay of Kiel, the island of Fehmern, the east coast of Holstein and the southern coast of the Danish Islands. "The imposing spectacle of the departure of our fleet," says the Localanzeiger, the official organ of the government, "showed that we possess today a sea force that has no cause to fear an encounter in the open sea. The time has passed when our naval inferiority compelled us to adopt a conservative policy inconsistent with the dignity of a great power."
The naval review in the Bay of Kiel, which on Tuesday, September 5, concluded the maneuvers, was a brilliant justification of these proud words. On the morning of the 5th, the weather threatened to lie unfavorable to the imposing spectacle to be enacted in the Bay of Kiel The sun lay hidden behind dark gray clouds and a line rain was falling so persistently that the worst might be expected. At nine o'clock, the Imperial yacht, Hohenzollern, with the Emperor, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, and a brilliant retinu of German princes and German and Austrian admirals on board, got under way. At the same time the weather began to clear, when about ten o’clock the Hohenzollern reached the fleet the sun shone down on the magnificent spectacle from a blue sky. The fleet came slowly into the gulf preceded by six flotillas comprising sixty-six modern destroyers. The squadron followed in column, led by the flagship Deutschland, flying the flag of the commander-in-chief. Simultaneously with the flagship, battleships and cruisers saluted the Emperor with thirty-three guns. The fleet was shrouded with a thick, white smoke furroughed by jets of yellow-red tire. The smoke cleared and then came the great moment. The endless line of battleships filed majestically by the supreme chief of the fleet. First came the Deutschland, then the four Nassaus, nine cruisers of the Schlesien and Braunschweig class, the four armored cruisers, Blucher, Von der Tann, Yorch and Roon, four battleships of the Kaiser class, and the cruisers Worth, Brandenburg and Schwaben. Eight protected cruisers, all provided with turbines, the tenders Blitz and Pfeil, the division of mine sweepers, and the flotilla of submarines brought up the rear. All the ships were flying the German battle flag, and the Austrian colors in honor of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand. Of course, the all important fact of the naval review consists in the appearance of the first German squadron of Dreadnoughts, although the squadron cannot be considered complete without the super-Dreadnoughts Thuringen, Ostfriesland and Helgoland, which have not yet completed their trial trips. After the ships had filed past, the Emperor and Archduke, accompanied by the Austrian Admiral, Count de Montecucoli, went on board the Deutschland. The whole fleet then put out to sea where it maneuvered for several hours before the Emperor and his hosts. These maneuvers consisted in a series of tactical drills and a long battle drill between a squadron composed of seventeen of the most modern ships and an enemy represented by the reserve squadron and the armored cruisers. Breakfast was served by the commander of the fleet on board the Deutschland while the fleet was making for its rendezvous near the island of Fehmern. The Archduke and Count Contecucoh must have been enthusiastic over what they witnessed. After having passed the afternoon on board the Hohenzollern, the Emperor and his hosts went on board the Deutschland about seven o'clock in the evening. After the dinner, the Deutschland returned to Kiel. On the way a night combat took place, with an attack by the destroyer flotillas. The scene was one of wild and savage beauty. The Emperor's guests beheld spellbound the luminous cones of the projectors, the thick clouds of powder smoke, the signal rockets, the dark, roaring water, the outlines of the great ships and the black-painted destroyers, while their ears were deafened by the incessant firing of the guns.
After passing the night on board the Hohenzollern the royal party left Kiel on the 6th of September for Berlin and Vienna, respectively. On the same day, the second part of the naval maneuvers was begun by a strategic operation extending as far as Skager Rack and Cattegat. The High Sea Fleet engaged a hostile force superior in number of units, which had as a nucleus the reserve squadron.
After the naval review the following were appointed vice-admirals: Rear-Admirals Bachmann and Von Krosigk; and rear-admirals, Captains Trummler and Stahiner.
The German Emperor has conferred the "Aigle Noir" upon the Austrian admiral, Count de Montecucoli: in return, the German admirals have been decorated with high Austrian orders.
After the naval review, the representatives of the German press were invited by the Navy Department to visit the Oldenburg, the latest type of German battleship. The foreign journalists were not admitted on board.
The armored cruiser Moltke has left the Blohm & Voss ship yards of Hamburg for Kiel where it began its trial trip flying the battleflag. The Moltke is the fourth Dreadnought put in service in the' space of three months. The Moltke and the three battleships of the Ostfriesland class have a combined displacement of about 100,000 tons. The Moltke represents a considerable advance over the Von der Tann, having a displacement of 23,000 tons as against 79,000. The Moltke, like the Von der Tann has boilers of the Marinekessel type, with small tubes (the Von der Tann has 18; the Moltke 24). The speed recorded officially as 25.5 knots, will probably reach 28 knots, as in the case of the Von der Tann. The armament comprises ten 28-mm. guns, twelve 150-mm. guns, and twelve 88-mm guns. With a length of 186 m., the Moltke is the longest German warship, being 20 m. longer than the Ostfriesland, and 15 m. longer than the Von der Tann.
The contract for building the armored cruiser K has already been let to the Blohm & Voss shipyards of Hamburg, which have already built the Von der Tann and the Moltke, and are at present at work on the Goeben and the H. All the German Dreadnought cruisers have been entrusted to this firm which has established a world-wide record (28 knots. 12) for large ships.
The German press is vigorously attacking M. Delcasse, Minister of the French Navy, for having expressed at Toulon, at a time when the Moroccan conference is going on, his extreme satisfaction that the French equipment for war was ready to meet any emergency. "M. Delcasse has not always had," says the Frankfort Gazette, "that tact which makes the perfect statesman. It is quite natural that the Minister of Marine should praise his fleet. President Fallieres had done this at Toulon some days before; this statesman, however, had been satisfied to speak of the future, while M. Delcasse clearly alluded to the present situation. If we may believe the articles published by M. Ludovic Naudeau in the Journal, the results of the first part of the French naval maneuvers were not so brilliant as to justify the superfluous praise of M. Delcasse."—La Vie Maritime
The building program provides this year for the construction of three battleships, one large cruiser, two small cruisers, and twelve destroyers.
The battleship S, the large cruisers K, the small cruiser Ersatz-Geier comprising numbers 7 to 12 of the G class, will have Parsons turbines of 281,000 horse-power, representing 58 per cent of the marine engines built this year in Germany. Practically all of the 42 remaining per cent will be turbines allowing the rotary drum which is a feature of the Parsons turbine. Only six destroyers will have the multiple-disk rotors, and it is probable that the number of these disks will be reduced to three.
The change of opinion in Germany as to the efficiency of multiple-disk turbines may be attributed to the numerous accidents that have happened to purely actionary turbines.
The battleship Thuringen attained in its trial trip 21 knots, with normal displacement. The Helgoland completed successfully in August its preliminary trial trip. It was equipped on the twenty-third of August for its final trial trip. The small cruiser Coin made 26.3 knots, in its trial trip. The battleship Ersatz-Kurfurst Friedrich Wilhelm will be built it Hamburg.
The cruiser Moltke, which has just completed its trial trip, attained a speed of 29 ½ knots, thanks to its Parsons turbines. It is a sister ship of the Von der Tann. It was launched last year after twenty-nine month* had been spent in its construction.
The following is the program for the fleet (construction and armament of new ships) for the half year beginning October, 1911, and ending April, 1912:
- Ships to be completed by the first of next April: the battleship Oldenburg, the cruiser Goeben, and the small cruiser Breslau. These ships will have made their trial trip by that date.
- Completion of the cruisers Kaiser and Friedrich der Grosse and the second-class cruisers Magdeburg and Strassburg.
- Continuation of the work on the battleships Ersatz-Aegir, Ersatz-Odin and Ersatz-Hagen, and the Cruiser J.
- Laying the keels of the cruiser S and the battleships that are to replace the Kurfurst-Wilhelm and the Weissenburg; of the cruiser K, two small cruisers and an indefinite number of torpedo boats and submarines.
According to the Ueberall the contract for the construction of the two battleships Ersatz-Kurfurst Friedrich Wilhelm and Ersatz-Weissenburg, included in the program for this year, will not be issued for some weeks. The contract is to be let to a private firm since the arsenal at Wilhelmshaven has already a battleship on the stocks, and the one at Kiel is finishing the Kaiser after launching. The third battleship included in the program for 1911 has already been ordered. The armored cruiser K will be built by a private firm. It has not been decided where the small cruiser Ersatz-Geier will be built.
Contracts for the construction of the Ersatz-Kurfurst Friedrich Wilhelm, the Ersatz-Weissenburg and the fast cruiser K will be let out to private firms before a few weeks.
The small cruiser Ersatz-Condor, which was put on the stocks last summer, was launched at the arsenal of Wilhelmshaven on the 24th of August. This ship, which has a displacement of about 5000 tons, has been named Strassburg. The destroyer G 194, built by the shipyard Germania at Kiel, attained a speed of 36 knots.
The old battleships will be used for coast-defence purposes. To this end, an experiment will be made with two battleships of the Siegfried class. They are to receive each two 28 centimeter, 40 caliber guns; their hulls are to be made unsinkable. If this experiment is successful, it will be applied to the two Brandenburgs. The armor-plating of the two Siegfrieds will be replaced by the latest model Krupp steel plates. A similar attempt is being made in England to utilize the Royal Sovereigns.
GREAT BRITAIN.
The Orion’s Gunnery Trials.—One of the most crucial tests in the gunnery trials of the new battleship Orion, with her 13.5-inch armament, was that of the "blast" test. The ship appears to have emerged from this test with no more damage to her hull and fittings surrounding the muzzles of the large guns, in their arc of fire, than could have been expected, considering she is the first ship of her type to be armed with the 1.3.5-inch gun of modern pattern. The charges of the old 13.5 weapon were much less powerful and the blast, therefore, much less destructive, than the 12-inch guns that succeeded them; but it was necessary in both cases, in the earlier type of battleship, to fit what is known as a "flash plate" across the sweep of deck over which the muzzle of the guns passed from any point at which they could be tired, in travelling from one broadside to the other. At the Orion trials the bottom of a boat was blown out by the blast, but that is not at all exceptional in a new ship firing her guns for the first time; indeed it is by such experience, showing which line the released gases are likely to take, that the ill-effects of the blast can be reduced to a minimum. Taken altogether, the authorities appear to have largely anticipated the safeguards which would be required, and have successfully placed them in position.—United Service Gazette.
The Battleship Orion.—The center-line system of mounting the guns has been adopted for the Orion, owing to the increased weight and power of the new weapons. Any other arrangement would have subjected the ship to great strains, necessitating an increased displacement. By the center-line system, so successfully exploited by the American designers, the maximum arc of fire for each turret is gained, but at the same time the ahead and astern fire is curtailed. In view of the declining importance of axial fire, this cannot be regarded as a drawback.
Two of the five turrets are mounted on the forecastle, the after one being raised to enable its guns, theoretically, to fire over the other. A third is situated amidships on the center-line aft of the superstructure carrying the single tripod mast and pair of funnels. This turret is on the same level as the upper deck, and the superstructure, both forward and aft of it, has been carefully cut away in order to give the widest possible arc of training, which must be at least 120 degrees on either beam. Further aft is a raised superstructure carrying some of the 4-inch guns of the anti-torpedo armament, a pair of boat hoists, and a second conning tower. The two remaining turrets are superimposed, the higher being on a level with the bow turret, and having a very wide arc of training indeed. Although in theory two of the turrets can fire over those below them, it is extremely unlikely whether they will ever do so in practice, even in the case of the lighter 12-inch turrets of the Neptunes. During the gun trials of the Minas Geraes and the Neptune, it is found that living organisms would not suffer to any great extent from the blast of such tiring, but it is very doubtful if they would be equally unaffected by the far heavier discharge of the new battle gun. Consequently it is misleading to regard the ahead or astern tire of the Orion as more than two guns, and the number does not increase to four until the target is some degrees to one side of the axial line of the ship. If there are no grounds for this assumption, it is difficult in the design of the new cruiser Lion to account for the turret which is placed between the second and third funnel not having been superimposed above the stern turret so as to swell the astern fire. Without gaining increased axial lire astern, the system of superimposed turrets does give some advantages. Turrets so mounted do not take up so much of the length of a ship as would the same turrets if mounted on exactly the same level, as in the American vessels of the Utah and Delaware classes. Again, the training of such turrets is only curtailed by considerations of blast, and they can be safely trained over small additional arcs which would be impossible in the cramped American system owing to the interference of the adjacent turret. Another consideration is the possibility of the jamming or disablement of the stern turret, when, without the superposed guns the stern fire would be greatly curtailed.
There is very little in the disposition of the main armament which can be criticized adversely. It is a great improvement on the two systems of mounting ten guns which has hitherto been adopted in British Dreadnoughts, and is superior to that adopted in the four American examples above quoted, in which two of the turrets are rather cramped.
With regard to the total weight of broadside, the following table shows the great superiority of the Orion over all foreign ships of the same program (19x19-10) in this respect:
Name
| Broadside
| Total Weight (lbs.)
|
Oldenburg (Germany)
| 8 12.2-in.
| 7,848
|
Kaiser (Germany)
| 10 12.2-in.
| 9,810
|
Arkansas (U.S.A.)
| 12 12-in. 50 cal.
| 10,404
|
Courbet (France)
| 10 12-in. 50 cal.
| 9,720
|
D. Alighieri (Italy)
| 12 12-in. 46 cal.
| 11,032
|
Cavour (Italy)
| 13 12-in. 46 cal.
| 11,951
|
Moreno (Argentine)
| 12 12-in. 50 cal.
| 10,404
|
Hercules (Great Britain)
| 10 12-in. 50 cal.
| 8,500
|
Lion (Great Britain)
| 8 13.5-in. 45 cal.
| 10,000
|
Orion (Great Britain)
| 10 13.5-in. 45 cal.
| 12,500
|
The Italian vessels Dante Alighieri and the three Cavours are the only serious rivals in this respect, mainly through the number of guns mounted being twelve in one case and no less than thirteen in the three others, in spite of their displacement being no more than 21,500 tons. The British Admiralty ever since the introduction of the Dreadnought has steadfastly set its face against armament of more than ten guns, with the result that the Hercules, the last of the British 12-inch gun ships, makes a poor showing in the above table in comparison with the Arkansas, Dante Alighieri, Cavour, Moreno, and also the older Brazilian Minas Geraes. Hence the introduction of the 13.5-inch was very welcome, in view of the official adherence to a ten-gun armament. However, foreign nations have not been slow to follow the British lead, and in the program of igio-11 and 1911-12 provision has been made by the United States for four ships mounting a new 14-inch, and by Japan for four ships with 73.5-inch guns. Germany intends to mount 14-inch in some of her new ships, and France has a 13.4-inch weapon on the tapis. As the broadside of the new American ships amounts to about 14,000 pounds, it will be necessary to make further improvements in the main armament of the Orion's successors.
Unlike previous British Dreadnoughts, the armor protection is continued right up to the upper deck, and this upper strake extends from the forward turret to a point just aft of the fourth turret. The main belt is believed to be 12 inches thick, tapering to four inches at the ends, and is not quite complete, as it is considered sufficient to protect the extremities of the ship by minute subdivision into compartments. Owing to the fine lines of modern battleships and armored cruisers, the armored protection could at best be only a few inches thick, and would be quite useless for keeping out shells.
The machinery of the Orion was constructed by the Wallsend Company, and consists of Parsons turbines of 27,000 horse-power, driving four screws, and giving the usual battleship speed of 21 knots. Eighteen Yarrow boilers arranged in three groups supply steam, and can be fired by oil fuel as well as coal. The total fuel supply is 3700 tons, including 1000 tons of oil, sufficient for a large radius of action.
In spite of the increased weight of the heavy armament and the great increase in length of the Orion, the jump in displacement has not been remarkable. The Neptune, with her ten 12-inch, has a displacement of 19,900 tons, and a length between perpendiculars of 510 feet; the Orion is heavier by 2780 tons, while her length is 545 feet between perpendiculars. Over all she measures no less than 584 feet, has a beam of 87 feet, and normally draws about 27 ½ feet.
In speed of construction the battleship Orion, although the first ship of a new type, bids fair to rival the Vanguard, which was commissioned within 23 months from the laying of her keel-plate. The Orion was laid down at Portsmouth on November 29, 1009, and having begun her trials on the 11th inst. will return to that port if all goes well on the 25th, which will leave more than five weeks to enable her to be commissioned within the period taken by the Vanguard. It is satisfactory to note what the position with regard to the construction of the new type will be in March, 1913, when the first foreign vessel mounting 14-inch weapons comes into commission. This ship is believed to be the Ersatz Odin, building at Kiel, although there is no definite information on the subject. When she joins the pennant Great Britain will possess a division of eight battleships, and in addition three armored cruisers all armed with 13.5-inch guns. By March, 1914, ten other ships will have been commissioned for Germany, Japan and the United States, while five more will join the British Navy, and so to this extent will Great Britain lead the world at that date.—Military Record.
The battleship Orion returned to Portsmouth Harbor on the 26th ult. on the completion of her gun trials, which, with all the other tests imposed upon her, are officially described as having resulted very satisfactorily. Four full charges were fired from each gun on extreme bearings. The whole ten 13.5-inch guns were also trained on a broadside and fired simultaneously. This caused the ship to heel over about three degrees, but did not damage the hull. When the two guns in the elevated barbette were fired four boats on the upper deck were broken up by concussion. The mountings of all guns, however, showed no signs of weakness. The Orion also successfully carried out her torpedo trials and will now prepare for the pennant. The result of the trials is of additional interest owing to the circumstance that she carries ten 13.5 guns and in view of the position of the guns in the ship and their mounting. The ship's structure withstood well the heavy strain thrown on it by discharge of the guns. The hull was examined at intervals during the progress of the firing, but showed no sign of having suffered injury from concussion. As usual some breakage was caused amongst glass and lighter woodwork, but this is of no account.
H.M. Battleship King George: An Improved Orion.—Nothing official concerning the battleship King George V. has been, or will be obtainable, but from what is known, says the Times, the following particulars will be found substantially correct.
It is understood that in all essential details, such as the gun power and the number and position of the guns in the ship, the arrangements in the King George V, will be similar to those in the Orion. The new vessel will, however, be 15 feet longer, with 6 inches more beam, and will displace about 1500 more tons than her predecessors, as it is believed that the length of the King George V. is 555 feet between the perpendiculars, 596 feet over all, with a beam of 89 feet, and that her displacement when completed will be about 24,000 tons, her launching weight being approximately 9000 tons. The machinery is to be of the Parsons steam turbine type, working four shafts and four propellers, capable of developing a shaft power of 31,000 horse power, giving a speed of 21 knots. The steam is to be furnished from 18 water-tube boilers. The main armament will consist of ten 13.5-inch guns disposed in live turrets being placed in the center-line of the ship, and giving a broadside fire of 10 guns, and ahead and astern a fire of four, the second and fourth turrets being raised to enable the guns to fire over the first and fifth. The secondary armament for repelling torpedo attacks will be the latest type of 4-inch guns, which will be mounted under armor, the increased weight of the vessel enabling better protection to be given.
The King George V, will have one mast, and three submerged torpedo tubes for firing the 21-inch torpedo. The officers will be berthed in the after part of the ship and the men in the forward part, as it has now- been found that this arrangement answers best. In consequence of this reversion the vessel is fitted with an Admiral's stern walk, which no battleships built in recent years have carried.—Naval and Military Record.
Britain’s Twenty-First Dreadnought.—The battleship King George V was the first vessel of the 1910-11 program to take the water. She is the twenty-first British Dreadnought, and the seventh ship designed to carry the 13.5-inch gun. In all essential particulars she is similar in design to the Orion, whose trials have just been successfully completed, but is about twenty feet longer and over one thousand tons heavier in displacement. Like the Orion, the King George will carry ten 13.5-inch guns and about 20 4-inch as the anti-torpedo armament. The heavy guns will be in five double turrets mounted on the center line of the ship, the aftermost fore turret and the foremost after turret being raised above the others. The King George V. is the second ship in the navy to bear the name of a reigning sovereign. She belongs to the first program of King George's reign, as the King Edward VII. belonged to the first program of King Edward's reign, and a comparison of the two gives a fair idea of the evolution of the "capital ship" since 1902, when the King Edward was laid down at Devonport Dockyard.—Naval and Military Record.
Our Next Battleships.—The Admiralty, says Engineering, has invited private firms to submit tenders by the end of the month in connection with the construction of four battleships. Two of these battleships with their machinery, will be built in private works, and prices are asked for hull and machinery, while two will be constructed respectively at the Portsmouth and Devonport dockyards, and engineering firms are asked to submit prices for the construction of the Parsons turbine machinery and the Babcock or Yarrow watertube boilers for these. One more armored ship is included in the navy program for the current year, and this will be a cruiser of the Lion type, to be built by contract, and to complete a cruiser fleet unit of four such vessels of 28-knot speed with practically the fighting power of battleships. The other three vessels are, of course, the Lion, the Princess Royal, and the Queen Mary. The new battleships will resemble the four ships of the King George V. class, which are to be launched within the next three or four months. The differences in the new battleships are unimportant, though it is probable that an advance will be made in connection with the torpedo-repelling guns. There will be a slight increase in displacement to over 24,000 tons, and the horse-power will be increased to 29,000 in order that the same speed of 21 knots may be easily realized.
A Glasgow correspondent says: Private builders arc also tendering for seven special destroyers of exceptionally high speed. The tenders for three protected cruisers were sent in to the Admiralty on Wednesday.
The four battleships (says the London correspondent of The Glasgow Herald, are as a matter of course to be bigger than their immediate predecessors—how much bigger it would not be fair either to the Admiralty or their contractors at this early stage to say. Like every other type of warship, battleships have a sort of natural tendency to grow, although the effect on offensive or defensive quality is not always visible to, so to say, the naked eye. The Bellerophons displace 700 tons more than the Dreadnought, but they carry sixteen 4-inch guns instead of her twenty-seven 12-pounders. The St. Vincents displace 650 tons more than the Bellerophons, yet have only to the eye of the observer four 4-inch guns more. The Neptunes displace 750 tons more than the St. Vincents, and on the bigger dimensions are able to give a broadside of ten 12-inch guns without any apparent sacrifice in ahead or astern fire. The jump from the Neptunes to the Orions is 2250 tons, and for that we get at any rate the middle line arrangement and increase of an inch and a half in the caliber of the main guns. As I indicated on Tuesday, we get in the King Georges a better and better protected anti-torpedo armament for the additional 2500 tons. Of course there have been other improvements costing weight, but only striking features like those which I have indicated as 2 rule interest the public. For the greater displacement of the projected ships I assume we shall get 4.7-inch guns, and as a matter of course better 13.5inch guns. The displacement is in the region of 27,000 tons.—Naval and Military Record.
Laid down on February 19 of last year, at the works of Vickers k Co., Barrow, the new protected cruiser Dartmouth of the improved town class, built and equipped at an estimated cost of £334,847, yesterday carried out her eight hours' acceptance trial preparatory to her delivery to the Admiralty. The Dartmouth is the second cruiser of her type to be completed for sea, the first, the Falmouth, having recently joined the Second Battle Squadron as an attached ship. The Dartmouth has a length of 430 feet, a breadth of 48 feet 6 inches, and a displacement of 5250 tons, while her turbines are of 22,000 horse-power, and capable of propelling her at a speed of 24.75 knots. Her armament consists of eight 6-inch breech loading guns.—United Service Gazette.
The construction of the second-class protected cruiser Chatham, building at Chatham Dockyard, is so far advanced that the contractors for the engines, the Thames Iron Works Company, have commenced to make the preparation on board for putting in certain parts of the machinery before the vessel leaves the slipway. The ceremony of launching the Chatham is expected to take place early in November. There has been no public launch at Chatham since the battleship Africa was set afloat, more than six years ago.—United Service Gazette.
Owing to a variety of causes the armored cruiser Lion, the first of the class to be fitted with 13.5-inch guns, is not up to program time. The Lion was laid down at Devonport Dockyard on November 29, 1909, and it was expected that she would have been ready by the end of September or the early part of October to commence her steam trials, which are being looked forward to with unusual interest owing to the machinery being designed for 70,000 shaft horse-power. The contracting engineers have been hampered by labor trouble, and it has now been found desirable to disconnect the whole of the shafting to re-test its accuracy owing to one portion being slightly out of alignment. The dockyard portion of the work is also in arrear owing, it is stated, to the Lion embodying several new features. Instead of the cruiser being ready for service in two years from the laying down of the keel, there is now no prospect that she will take her place in the fleet before the latter part of January at the earliest. —United Service Gazette.
The new protected cruiser Falmouth, laid down on February 21, 1910, at the works of Messrs. W. Beardmore & Co., of Dalmuir, has been reported ready for delivery from the builders as completed for commissioning. The Falmouth is the first of the improved Bristol class of cruisers, and has been constructed with a length of 430 feet, and a displacement of 5250 tons, being 450 tons larger in displacement than the cruisers of the Bristol class. Her armament is also of a more powerful type, consisting of eight 6-inch breech-loading guns, compared with two 6-inch and ten 4-inch guns mounted in the earlier cruisers. Her estimated cost is £339,274.
Steam Trials of H.M.S. Sandfly.—The torpedo-boat destroyer Sandfly, built for the British Navy by Messrs. Swan, Hunter and Wigham Richardson, Limited, Newcastle-on-Tyne, and fitted with her machinery by the Wallsend Slipway and Engineering Company, Limited, Wallsendon-Tyne, completed on Monday, the 23d of October, her official eight hours' steam trials, when she attained a speed of 27.7 knots with the turbines running at a mean of 741 revolutions and developing 15,700 shaft horse-power. The designed speed was 27 knots. On her 24 hours' fuel consumption trial on the preceding Wednesday the oil used was about 1 pound per shaft horse-power per hour. The Sandfly is 240 ft. long, 25 feet 9 inches beam, and at 7 feet 10 inches draft displaces 780 tons. She is armed with two 4-inch quick-firing and two 12-pounder guns.
The fleet coaled again on Monday. The coaling was only a small one, but was very well executed. The Duncan and Triumph, as usual, tried to out-vie each other with their well known coaling feats. On this occasion they were fairly close, the Duncan leading. The Swiftsure was a very good third. These short coalings are very strenuous, and it is amusing to see the craft and subtlety adopted to prevent any loss of "time."
Results:
? | Amount
| Average per hour
|
1. Duncan
| 670
| 423.2
|
2. Triumph
| 530
| 413
|
3. Swiftsure
| 580
| 386.8
|
4. Bacchante
| 535
| 321
|
5. Exmouth
| 500
| 309.3
|
6. Russell
| 665
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—Naval and Military Record.
H. M. S. Archer, the first of five destroyers of special type under construction for the British Admiralty at the works of Messrs. Yarrow & Company, of Glasgow, was launched on Saturday the 21st inst. The vessel is 240 feet long by 25 feet 7 inches beam, propelled by twin screws driven by turbines of the Brown-Curtis type constructed by Messrs. Yarrow. Steam is supplied by three Yarrow water-tube boilers fired by oil fuel and fitted with a special form of superheater designed by the firm.
British Battleship Building Program.—The only lesson which the unfortunate outbreak of war between Italy and Turkey has, so far, taught, or appears likely to teach, is the need of complete preparedness for war at all times, since once more it has been demonstrated that the "bolt from the blue" is not the mere imagery of the poet. As with Japan, so with Italy, the issue of the ultimatum, or declaration of war, was instantly followed by military operations. Although such action may not of itself ensure in all cases ultimate success, it confers a considerable advantage in the initial stage, which may influence greatly the final issue It is therefore gratifying to note the unequivocal pronouncement of the First Lord of the Admiralty in reference to our building program, which is an important item in any scheme of preparedness for war. Like even other citizen, he is anxious for the minimizing of naval expenditure afar as prudence permits, but he has once more laid down the dictum that our program must be determined with full conception of the effect in war strength, at any future date, of the building operations of possible combatants. Thus be naturally awaits the issue of the estimates of foreign powers before completing the preparation of his financial and shipbuilding proposals for next year.
In the meantime it is agreeable to record simultaneously the satisfactory completion of the searching trials of the first of our ships fitted with the 13.5-inch gun, the prospective launch within the next three months of our new battleships, the issue of orders to Portsmouth and Devon port dockyards each to prepare for the building of a battleship, and the sending of invitations to private firms to tender for the building of two battleships included in the current year's program. In addition to these four battleships closely resembling the four ships of the King George I class, soon to be launched, there will be a fifth armored ship. This will be a cruiser of the Lion type, and will also be built by contract. This vessel will complete a cruiser fleet unit of four ships of 28 knots speed, with practically the lighting power of battleships. The differences in the new battleships, as compared with King George V. class, are unimportant, although it is probable that an advance will be made in connection with the torpedo repelling guns. There will be a slight increase in displacement to over 24,000 tons, and the horse-power will be increased to 20,000 shaft horsepower in order that the same speed of 21 knots may be easily realized More it might not be patriotic to divulge at the present moment, and we depart from the remark that the Admiralty obviously intend to place the orders for the three contract armored ships, and for the machinery for the two ships to be built in the dockyards, before the end of the year, since the tenders for battleship work are to be at the Admiralty by the 31st of the present month.
The King George V. is to be launched on Monday from the Portsmouth Dockyard, the Centurion from the Devonport Dockyard a moment later, and in December the Scotts' Shipbuilding and Engineering Company will launch the Ajax, and Messrs. Cammell, Laird & Co. the Audacious. All four ships are in a satisfactorily advanced stage, so that notwithstanding the labor troubles, they are likely to be completed in two years from the date of laying the keel; but it is probable that they will not be ready for commission before the beginning of 1913. These ships are a development of the Orion class. It seems almost inevitable that the demands of the strategist and tactician should, in the case of each successive ship, involve increased displacement.
The machinery, as in all of the later battleships, is of the Parsons type, and the constructors were the Wallsend Slipway and Engineering Company. The two low-pressure turbines are in one center engine-room, and the low-pressure astern turbines are incorporated in the same casing as the ahead turbines. Each wing-shaft has a separate high-pressure ahead and astern turbine, the ahead turbines being arranged with cruising blading, to be cut out when the vessel is running at high speed; a by-pass valve is fitted for this purpose. The boilers are of the Babcock and Wilcox type, fitted to burn coal and oil, and, as in the usual Admiralty practice, quite 2 square feet of heating surface is allowed for each horsepower to be developed, the ratio of heating to grate surface being 35 to 1. The condensers are of Weir's "Uniflux" type, with Weir's dual-type pumps. On the trials, which were attended by Mr. Andrew Laing, the managing director of the contracting company, and by Engineer-Captain' Onyon, on behalf of the Engineer-in-Chief, the results were in excess of those anticipated in the designs. Trials were run at progressive speeds, in order to determine the radius of action at given speeds. The principal trial was that of 30 hours duration at two-thirds power (18,500). On this trial the mean revolutions of the turbines were 298, and the horsepower developed 18,960, the fuel consumption being 1.8 pound per shaft horse-power per hour. During this trial six runs were made over the measured distance at Polperro, when the speed was found to be 19.5 knots with the engines developing 18,900 shaft horse-power. On the eight hours' full power trial the mean revolutions were 346, and the shaft horse-power 27,600, the four runs giving a mean speed of 21.02 knots, with the engines developing 27,400 shaft horse-power. At full power the fuel consumption was equal to 1.62 pounds of coal per shaft horse-power per hour. In a subsequent trial, with the engines more fully opened up, 29,700 shaft horse-power was maintained. It will thus be seen that the 21 knots anticipated in the design were realized, and that, in emergency, even a greater speed can be got out of the machinery.—Engineering.
An admiralty order received at Pembroke Dockyard directs the authorities to commence building a new unarmored cruiser, for which initial provision was made in the Navy Estimates for the current financial year. The new ship will be a replica of the Active and the Amphion, now being constructed at Pembroke Dockyard. Her length will be 385 feet, and her displacement 3360 tons. She will be equipped with Parsons-Curtis turbines of 18,000 horse-power, and will steam 25 knots per hour. A sum of £11,200 will be spent in labor on her during the year.—United Service Gazette.
New Destroyers Ordered.—Messrs. J. Samuel White & Co., of Cowes and East Cowes, have received an order for six ocean-going destroyers of a special type, larger than those generally adopted. At Sheerness on Monday the Ferret, ocean-going destroyer, built at Cowes for the British Navy by Messrs. White & Co., developed a speed of 30 knots on an eight hours' speed trial, or three knots in excess of her contract speed.—Pages Weekly.
Naval Construction.—There is a general agreement that the authorities have made a wise decision in selecting Sir William Smith as the successor to Sir Philip Watts. The new director of Naval Construction has not only a high reputation as a designer of ships, but he has done plenty of sound, solid work as an instructor of other naval architects at the Royal Naval College. His practical experience as a draftsman and constructor goes back a matter of forty years, and covers the period of the later ironclad vessels as well as those of the area of steel. More recently he has filled the post of superintendent of construction accounts and contract work, in which he has been brought closely in touch with the officials of the great private shipbuilding establishments. Here he won golden opinions by his tact and good temper, just as his ability and industry had gained for him the commendation of his colleagues. Thus his appointment gives satisfaction in all quarters, and not the least to the Royal Corps of Naval Constructors, who are gratified that one of themselves should have been chosen instead of the post going outside the Admiralty, is at first appeared to be possible. No date appears to have been fixed for the departure of Sir Philip Watts, but when it comes there will be much regret at his leaving. His name will always be associated with the Dreadnought era, and with the many notable vessels to which it has given birth. It is quite possible, however, that during the next few years we may see another change, and that his successor may have the honor of designing the first gas-driven battleship for the British Navy.—Army and Navy Gazette.
The Coming Naval Officers.—To show how thorough the Admiralty intend the test of the general knowledge on all subjects to be, in the examination of the sub-lieutenants of the new system of training who are now passing for lieutenants, it is only necessary to select one of the subjects in which this knowledge will be tested. If we choose that of gunnery, as one only of the principal subjects, we find that the questions which have to be answered are very searching, for a candidate will be tested practically in almost every phase of up-to-date naval gunnery, and the ramifications of this science are rather more than considerable. He will be tested in adjusting, stripping and assembling hand-worked gun mountings, and he will have to describe the method of stripping and examining all the principal machinery of a 12-inch gun turret, and know all the probable causes of breakdowns and their remedies. He must have a thorough knowledge of all the leads and contacts of gun circuits, and know their tests and how to repair them, and also all the safety arrangements. A good knowledge of the sighting of all kinds of guns is required so as to be able to instruct a gun's crew or himself do the duties of a number at hand-loading and power worked guns, and he must be acquainted with the machinery and fittings of turrets. He must also know all about the projectiles, charges and fuses used with naval ordnance, and the methods of getting them on board and storing them in the magazines. He must have a knowledge of field training, and a thorough knowledge of hydraulics and how to organize a ship for war and battle; of fire control and night defence; of calibration and all sighting and controlling instruments, etc. It will thus be seen that if his training has been expensive it has also been extensive, and that he will be one of the best trained naval officers in the world if he reaches the standard expected of him.—United Service Gazette.
Throughout the navy it will be noticed with interest and appreciation that in approaching the consideration of the subject of a War Staff for the Navy Mr. Churchill called to his counsel the most experienced officers of the fleet. At his right hand he had Sir Arthur Wilson, then within a few days of Mr. Churchill taking office, Lord Fisher had returned from Switzerland and conferred with the First Lord. A day or so later Lord Charles Beresford was very appropriately also called into counsel. Lord Charles has in recent years consistently urged the necessity of creating a staff for the navy, and it was apparent when the report of the Cabinet Committee was issued that Mr. Asquith and his colleagues had come to the conclusion that the Admiralty organization left something still to be desired in this direction. The members of the Cabinet seemed to believe that a Naval Staff would dissipate all differences of opinion between officers of high rank and professional attainment on questions of strategy, tactics and fleet organization. This is an erroneous conception of its duties. The last thing that is desirable is that any machinery shall be created which will interfere with the free exercise of thought and the healthy differences of opinion which make for progressive action. The navy has certainly no desire to see any machinery invented which will compress its thought within narrow channels.
The end in view in establishing a Naval Staff is the better to fit the navy for quick and decisive use directly a state of war exists. Prior to the beginning of the present century such a staff would have found itself floundering in a hopeless morass. The active fleet at that time was still distributed on the principles laid down one hundred years before. The presence of half-manned and undrilled coast and port guardships testified to the survival of the coastal defence ideas which held sway at the beginning of the Victorian period, and practically there was no reserve organization of the fleet; the Board of Admiralty was under-manned and the Intelligence Department was largely dominated by the civilian element. Under Lord Walter Kerr, and more particularly as a result of the energetic reforms instituted by Lord Fisher, all this has been changed. The fleet is now distributed in accordance with the strategic needs of the moment. The bulk of the personnel is utilized in effective men-of-war: the Board of Admiralty has been immeasurably strengthened by the appointment of officers to assist the Sea Lords, and the Naval Intelligence Department has not only been strengthened, but has been relieved of the work of naval mobilization and the preparation of war plans, which it was supposed to carry out under the old regime. At the same time the Naval War College has been developed. The foundations have, in fact, thus been laid for the creation of a staff which shall be an extension of the mind of the First Sea Lord, a link with the growing navies of the oversea dominions, and a school of thought for the fleets at sea.—Naval and Military Record.
ITALY.
Italian Dreadnought "Conte di Cavour."—The Conte di Cavour, Italy's second Dreadnought, was launched at Spezia last August. In design she is quite the most unique of the many and varied types of battleship which come under this heading, and possesses the proud distinction of mounting the most numerous all-big-gun battery yet put into a modern warship, which consists of thirteen 12-inch guns.
As may be seen from the plan, these are carried in five turrets, of which two are raised to fire over the fore and aftermost and the remaining one is amidships between the masts. These three lower gun-houses carry three guns apiece, while the raised positions contain the ordinary twin mounting. All can be trained on either beam, and five axially ahead or astern, giving her a fire concentration of 11.050 pounds per broadside and 4250 pounds in the latter directions. For comparative purposes we append a table showing the fire concentration and main details of her contemporaries.
The anti-torpedo battery is carried along the upper deck and consists of eighteen 4.7-inch guns, while a tertiary armament of fourteen 14pounders is distributed over the superstructures and turret tops. These are not shown in the plan, as their exact positions are uncertain. A somewhat novel and original way of spacing the 47-inch guns has been adopted in order to provide for a heavy end-on fire. The hull side is deeply recessed in a series of steps fore and aft of the two center 4.7-inch ports so as to provide accommodation for four guns forward and three aft per broadside.
Turning again to the main armament, the actual battle-value of this huge collection of ordnance is a somewhat debatable point. As we have mentioned in preceding articles, the maximum number of guns that can be "controlled" from central range-finding stations is ten. What system is in use in the Italian navy is uncertain, but unless they have some such arrangement of the range-finders as is in vogue in Germany, i.e., one to each turret, whereby the groups of guns would be under five individual controls, it is unlikely that the fullest use will be obtained with the best results from the thirteen guns.
The three-gun turrets are now no longer a novelty, although it so happens that the Cavour is the first ship so fitted to be discussed in these columns. In any case they can only be regarded as a weight-saving but risky device employed faute de mieux in order to crowd in an increased number of smaller guns instead of substituting fewer guns of larger caliber. The Cavour could, and would, doubtless have been armed with ten 13.5-inch had these pieces been available in Italy, and for this reason her being fitted with thirteen 12-inch can only be looked upon as a temporary expedient to produce a more powerful ship than her neighbors, pending the introduction of the 13.5-inch, 14-inch or even 16-inch gun.
The armor protection is somewhat light for a ship of her size, but taken in conjunction with the armament and designed speed of 22.5 knots with 24,000 I. H. P., it is probably a good deal more extensive than could have been allotted to a similar ship built elsewhere. In our article on the Napoli (August, 1909), we mentioned in passing the Italian ability to get a better all-around ship on a given displacement than could be produced elsewhere. Where robustness is not the essential that it is to some nations, weight in scantlings, supports and frames can be reduced to what in our own ships would be probably below the minimum, added to which the wholesale use of asbestos fittings and hollow metal-work wherever possible, and you have a drastic saving in weight which can be utilized in other directions.
On paper the Cavour is, with the exception of our Orions, the most powerful ship afloat, added to which she has a higher designed speed than any battleship built or building, except the Russian Poltava class, and could therefore choose her own range in action, and maintain the best maneuvering positions. In practice her lack of displacement must tell somewhere or sometime; either in her ability to stand continuous firing, big-gun hammering, torpedo attack by below-water protection, or seaworthiness and speed-keeping in heavy weather. As she stands, however, the Cavour is a monument to Italian ingenuity in weight saving.
The thickness of the belt (water-line) is uncertain, but will doubtless be similar to that of the Dante Alighieri which preceded her, i.e., 10 inches amidships with continuations 6 inches forward and 4 inches aft. The protective deck is 1 ¾-inch only. An 8 ¾-inch strake covers the lower deck side and forms a redoubt, while the battery is behind 5-inch armor. The big gun barbettes and turrets have 954-inch protection, and there are two 11-inch conning towers of a novel pattern. Details of these are lacking, but from the model of the ship they appear to be three-story structures and will probably contain the central gun-control stations. The tripodmasts will be a good deal lighter than those fitted to our ships and carry a small observation platform, wireless rig, etc.
It is also reported that the funnel-bases are to be armored, but no confirmation of this can be obtained. In view of their close proximity to the 4.7-inch battery guns, it is most likely that this necessary precaution will be taken against having the flats permeated with smoke and fumes from pierced uptakes.
The Cavour class will have their steam generated in Blechynden or Babcock boilers, and be turbine driven. Their coal supply is not likely to differ much from that of the Dante Alighieri, which is normal 1000 and maximum 2500 tons.
British pattern "Bullivant" torpedo-nets will be stowed along the battery deck.
Two sisters, the Giulio Cesare and Leonardo da Vinci, are building at the Odero and Orlando yards respectively, and all three ships are to be completed by 1913.—The Marine Engineer and Naval Architect.
The first of the Italian scouts, the Quarto, was launched on Saturday August 19, in the somewhat cramped space of Venice Arsenal. She was laid down on November 11, 1909, and will be ready for sea in five months. Her designer, Ing. Truccone, has paid special attention to her internal strengthening, and has given her a double bottom for two thirds her length. She has ten Blechynden boilers and four Parsons' turbines developing 25,000 horse-power, and carries 450 tons of liquid fuel—her only fuel—and 200 blockade mines. Some of her principal dimensions are as follows: Length between perpendiculars. 130.50 m.; breadth, maximum, 12.80 m.; draft, 3.95 m.; speed, 28 ½ knots; armament: six guns—two bowchasers and four stern—of 120 mm.; six guns, 76 mm.; two torpedo tubes, 450 mm. —Engineering.
JAPAN.
Japan and Her Navy.—Big naval shipbuilding programs still hold their own in the international "fashion" lists, and the latest country to bestir itself in this direction is Japan. It is well-known that, although the "Flowery Kingdom" had soaring naval ambitions when she so triumphantly finished off her war with Russia, yet, since she did not receive a single kopeck of indemnity from the great Colossus of the North whose bubble she so effectually pricked, Japan was left in very straitened circumstances, and had to cut her naval coat according to her financial cloth. The Land of the Rising Sun has not made the same rapid financial recovery as France did after the debacle of 1870, simply because she has not developed industrially to the same extent as our cross-Channel neighbors, but the Mikado and his Ministers have handled the finances of the country with great skill and judgment and now her most progressive citizens believe she can safely go in for naval expansion. The main object of Japan's "big navy" advocates appears to be to have a war fleet as strong as their Pacific neighbor, the United States of America. If this wish is to be gratified, our little ally in the Far East will have to make a very earnest and energetic spurt in her shipyards—or in ours. The Americans have more money, and more facilities for spending it in their own shipyards than Japan has, but it is to be hoped that no such race will be started. What the best friends of both countries would desire to see is the signing of an arbitration treaty which would relieve the two of them from all thought of any such ruinous competition.
Before the Society for the Study of Military Affairs, Captain Oda made the following criticism of the Japanese Navy.
As a war port Sasebo in the southwest should have a complete offensive and defensive organization; on the coast of Corca Chinhai should protect transports passing the strait; there is no longer any reason for maintaining the station at Maizuru.
In regard to materiel, unity of caliber must be sought for in ordnance. Two arms as distinct as the automobile torpedo and the mine should be in entirely different hands. As for the personnel, officers perform duties that do not correspond to their rank. For example, the prefets maritimes have not sufficient authority; a lieutenant-commander is a divisional officer, a commander is an ordnance officer or navigating officer, The duties of the graduates of the naval college are not important enough. It is quite possible to make 'a more profitable expenditure of the money appropriated for the navy.
The Kobe arsenal has received orders to put a new battleship on the stocks, which is to be paid for out of the complimentary funds. It will be similar in type to the Kawachi (18,000 tons) and is to be christened Fuso after a cruiser stricken from the list of the fleet. It will be built in the 30,000 ton dry-dock recently completed in this port to do away with the disadvantages of launching. This is the first large ship to be built under these conditions.
The government of the Mikado is at present constructing four Dreadnoughts. Three are being built in Japan: namely, the Kirishima and the Hiyei at Nagasaki (the latter has not yet been put on the stocks), and the Harima, at the Kobe arsenal.
The Dreadnought building in England has been christened the Kongo. It is a fast battleship of 27,000 tons. The protected cruisers Chikuma, Hirato and Yahagi are being fitted out in the arsenals of Nagasaki and Kobe.
Two new destroyers and a number of river gunboats will be completed this year so as to be put in commission by the end of the present fiscal year.
The Ministry has decided to increase the appropriation for the annual expenditures of the navy with a view to enlarging the war fleet.
RUSSIA.
Reconstructing the Russian Fleet.—At last there are distinct signs of a progressive naval policy having been initiated in Russia. Messrs. Vickers (Limited) have booked a contract to build the first Russian Dreadnought at Nikolaieff, in the Black Sea, and have undertaken to modernize the shipyard there on the model of the latest British type of equipment. A second order is open to the firm if another company, not named, do not accept similar conditions with another shipyard in the Black Sea. Vickers' firm are now largely interested in shipbuilding operations for Spain, Russia, and Canada. Since the Russian Navy was destroyed in the Russo-Japanese war many difficulties have stood in the way of its reconstruction, and some of these may be enumerated. In the first place, for every officer employed on the active list whose business it was to take the ship to sea when she was built and fitted out. there were six bureaucrats of the veritable "Tite Barnacle" description, whose generous salaries had to be paid; there was but little work for them to do, but this did not deter them from remaining in their appointments. There is, then, the difficulty about men with whom to man the fleet, and this is really the crux of the whole matter. The Russian fleet has to be manned by land conscripts, with not only no aptitude for the sea, but with an absolute horror of the idea of venturing themselves on this element. Nor is this all. In other countries the training of seamen can proceed day in and day out all through the year, whereas in Russia the Baltic is not navigable for five months out of the twelve, during this time the peasants who are in the process of transformation into sailors are obliged to kick their heels in barracks on shore, doubtless to their own entire satisfaction. No matter how you dress a man, and no matter what you call him, you cannot make him a seaman in barracks; therefore, if Russia is ever to have a navy worthy of the name, she will have to send her fleet out of the Baltic during the winter months, when Generals "Janvier" and "Fevrier" can be trusted to look after the maritime interests of their country.
In 1908 a new naval policy was initiated by the Douma, which decided in commercial parlance, "to cut the loss" of Russian naval ambitions in the Far East, only maintaining there the local naval defences at Vladivostock, agreeing at the same time to keep in the Black Sea a sufficient force to exercise an effective control between the Russian and Bulgarian coasts. Finally, and after much searching of hearts and seeking of guarantees for efficient administration, it was decided to start afresh in the Baltic, not only by a complete reconstruction of the naval establishments, but also by the building of a new fleet. The question then arose as to what class of vessel was in the future to fly the white flag with the blue St. Andrew's cross. The Admiralty, with sound strategic instinct, averred that only ships of the line were of any use. This was met by a section of publicists, and even officers, who declared for a fleet of cruisers, torpedo craft and submarines, capable of waging a defensive warfare in the confined waters of the Baltic, basing their contention on the fact that it would be so long before Russia could once again show a formidable battleship division, that ere that time arrived the might of Germany would be irresistible. So alluring and so economical was this plan that in the first instance it was adopted by the Douma, who voted a million and a quarter sterling for this purpose.
We cannot blame the national assembly for this decision; they had felt themselves bitterly humiliated by the non-success of the navy in the war, and argued—most unfairly if very naturally—that the blame lay with the officers and men of the fleet; therefore if money was to be spent in the defence of the country they preferred to give it to the army rather than to the navy. Those who have read the books of Vladimir Semenoff will remember that this able and patriotic officer laid to the account of the bureaucrats, and the dishonest administration they represented, the fact of the defeat of the Russian Navy. When inquisition was made this contention was proved up to the hilt, and it required the personal intervention of the Czar before the Douma could be induced to do that which has now been done. Admiral Dikof, who did not fall in with the views of the popular assembly, resigned, and was succeeded by Admiral Voyedvosky. This officer resigned, and was nominated as a member of the Council of Empire, his place being taken by his adjutant, Admiral Grigorovitch, who has been appointed Minister of Marine. The relations between Admiral Voyedvoski and the Douma were not of the happiest description, and it remained for his adjutant to persuade the members, after many delays, to vote the necessary credits for the four battleships to be constructed on the Baltic.
The post of an administrator, through whose hands an enormous amount of public money has to pass, is never a particularly enviable one; that of Admiral Grigorovitch must be singularly onerous and unpleasant. He has in the first instance to clean the Augean stable which has been left to him. This in itself would seem to be work enough for one man. He has then to create new dockyards and arsenals, train up native workmen to build battleships in these establishments, since it has been decided that the Russian ship must be built in a Russian Yard. This is doubtless extremely patriotic, but the decision having been come to, the Parliament and the nation must be prepared to foot the bill, which will work out at from twenty-five to forty per cent more than is spent in a similar manner in England or Germany.
A Commission of Inquiry which was appointed last year sent in a report this April, in which it was stated that for more than thirty years the credits voted for the upkeep of the fleet have been used for purposes entirely different to those for which they had been allocated; instancing that money for new construction had been used for the patching up of worn-out and useless vessels, and further, that the vessels ordered to be built were kept so long upon the stocks that they had to be altered before they were launched, in order that they might be brought up to date. The program which the new Minister of Marine has submitted for the approval of the Douma lacks nothing in the way of completeness. It comprises twelve battleships of the largest size, five armored cruisers (and the armored cruiser of the present day is nothing but a battleship of extra speed), eighteen fast torpedo craft of from one thousand to thirteen hundred tons, sixteen submarines, and five minelaying vessels—all for service in the Baltic; and three large battleships, nine destroyers, and six submarines for the Black Sea, the whole to cost 96 millions sterling, and to be spread over a period of ten years, acceleration to proceed year by year.
One thing seems to be fairly certain concerning this program, which is that the money will not be sufficient. It would be a difficult matter to provide the number of vessels projected, even if the means of construction were adequate and conducted economically. As this is not the case, the Douma, if it holds to its program, will have to meet considerable sums in "Supplementaries" before the decade expires. There is some reason for this anticipation when we read what has been said in the way of criticism in the Novoe Vremya by "Brutus." This writer declares that the new all-big-gun battleships of the Gangut type, which were to have been built in forty-five months, and for which the time of completion was in 1910 carried to between four and five years, will, as a matter of fact, take six years and eight months to complete; that their cost which was to have been 57 millions of francs, will be 80 millions, or an outlay of 3450 francs per ton. If this calculation be correct, it is enough to stagger humanity, when we remember that the Dreadnought, the experimental vessel of the all-big-gun type cost £100 per ton to build, and that the later types are somewhat in the neighborhood of £80 per ton. If the calculations and the anticipations of "Brutus" are correct, Russia will be paying over three million sterling per battleship.
These prognostications seem somewhat unduly gloomy, as the first of the Gangut class, the Sevastopol, was launched on the Neva on June 29; the second, the Poltava, on July 10; while the last two, the Gangut and the Petropavlovsk, are to be launched on August 28 and October 28 respectively. As they were laid down in June, 1909, and as at the moment of launching the Sevastopol had a displacement of 8230 tons, we might reasonably expect that this vessel, at all events, will be completed for sea in less than four and a half years. We are, however, compelled to note the case of the Andrei Persoswanni, which was laid down at the Baltic Works in January, 1903, and the Imperator Pavel, begun in the same yard in September, 1903, and which, after alterations that have taken place, are now, in the second half of 1911, beginning their trials! They are of the Lord Nelson type of the British Navy—or, rather, they approach that claw nearer than any other—and it was this class which immediately preceded the all-big-gun type of vessel. They are therefore actually obsolescent before they have begun their trials. In the Black Sea the two battleships of the Iefstafi class which have just reinforced the Russian fleet in that sea, have been under construction at Nikolaieff and Sevastopol since 1903.
Russia has viewed with alarm the purchase by Turkey from Germany of the Kurfurst Friedrkh Wilhelm, and the Weissenburg, and is still more exercised at the order by that nation for two Dreadnoughts in England. It is plain that if the navy of the Czar is to make head against the Turks it will mean the complete reconstruction of her dockyards in the Black Sea. It is possible, of course, that Russia may, in self-defence, resort to ordering battleships abroad. However this may be, one thing is certain: that unless the new Minister of Marine can make headway against the bureaucracy, can introduce economies—which in plain English means the dismissal of about 50 per cent of the incapables who batten upon the credits voted for naval purposes—and unless he is supported by the whole force of public opinion—such as it is in Russia—as well as by the votes of the Douma, then his mission will be a failure. Admiral Grigorovitch has on his hands the biggest contract of any man in Europe. We admire him for the dauntless courage and enlightened patriotism, which has caused him to take it up, and heartily wish him success in the difficult task that lies before him.—The Naval and Military Record.
The Russian Navy.—The silver keel-plates have been laid at Nikolaieff, by Admiral Grigorovitch, Minister of Marine, of the three battle ships of which it was announced some time since were to be built for the Black Sea Fleet. This ceremony indicates that difficulties have been overcome, but the keels of the ships will not be put down for some months, though work will proceed with the essential parts in the interim, so that progress may be rapid. The period of construction is stated to be four years, but it is not known exactly what this implies—probably from the present time to the completion of acceptance trials. The shipbuilding concerns on the River Bong have been reorganized, and while one group, that of the Chantiers Navals, is under the control of Messrs. Vickers, the other represents the interests of Messrs. John Brown, of Clydebank. The latter will build two ships to be known as the Emperor Alexander III and the Empress Marie, and the latter the third ship to be known as the Ekaterina or Catherine. These ships requiring coal capacity sufficing for the Black Sea, will probably displace 22,500 tons, but will be in every way equal to the new Baltic ships, with some improvements. They are credited with an armament of twelve 12-inch guns and a speed of 21 knots.—The Naval and Military Record.
The Russian Naval Development.—The first stone has been laid of a great basin at Cronstadt, which is to be named after the heir to the Russian throne, Prince Alexia Nicolaievitch. The basin will be 836 feet 8-inches long, and 35 feet 8-inches deep below the ordinary water level. The Russian Minister of Marine has proposed an extension of the Russian Admiralty yards in the Gabeeren Isles. The land proposed to be acquired, and the buildings to be built, will involve an estimated outlay of 1,080,000/.—Engineering.
Launching of the "Petropavlovsk."—On the ninth of this month the Czar, surrounded by members of the Imperial family and his Ministers, gave the signal for the launching of the third Dreadnought. The ceremony took place amid the salvos of the cruiser Makaroff's guns and the enthusiastic cheers of the crowd that thronged the banks of the Neva. The Petropavlovsk glided majestically into the waters of the stream, taking its place with the two Dreadnoughts already launched and about to receive their armament. Those present received the vivid impression that the Russian fleet would soon occupy a prominent place among the navies of the world.
At the launching, Admiral Grigorovitch, Minister of the Navy, said the following:
"Russia must regain the control of the Baltic, acquired two hundred years ago." These words show an irrevocable determination to contest the superiority of Germany in these waters.
The Petropavlovsk is six hundred feet long, and has a displacement of 3,000 tons, and a speed of 23 knots. Its armament will consist of 12 guns of 305 millimeters, and 7 of 120 millimeters.
TURKEY.
When pitted against a power like Turkey, the powerful Italian pre-Dreadnought fleet assumes formidable proportions. Among these ships are the Emanuele Filiberto and Ammiroglio di Saint Bon, of 9800 tons and 18 knots speed; the Regina Marghcrita and Benedetto Brin, of 13,400 tons and 20 knots; the Regina Elena, Vittorio Emanuele III., Napoli, and Roma, of 12,600 tons and 22 knots speed; and the armored cruisers Giuseppe Garibaldi, Varese, and Francesco Ferrucio, of 7400 tons and 20 knots. The Emanuele Filiberto and Marco Polo, which left Taranto on Saturday with sealed orders, were launched respectively in 1897 and 1892. The former has a displacement of 9800 tons, and her main armament consists of four 10-inch, eight 6-inch, and eight 4.7-inch guns. She has two sets of 3-cyl. triple-expansion engines, her machinery having been made in Italy from British designs. The Marco Polo's six 6-inch and four 4.7-inch guns are not of recent pattern. Her displacement is only 4583 tons. Italy is well provided with torpedo boats, destroyers, submarine boats, mine-laying vessels, etc., and her navy easily ranks sixth in importance when compared with the other powers.
Turkey only possesses three inferior battleships—namely, the Torgut Reis (ex-Weissenburg) and Kheyr ed din Barbarossa (ex-Kurfurst Friedrich Wilhelm), bought from Germany, and the Messudieh, built in 1874, and rebuilt in 1904 by Ansaldo. There are several other old ironclads which are belived to be useless or nearly so. The Hamidieh and Medjidieh are protected cruisers of 3800 tons and 22 knots, built in 1903, the first at Elswick the other by Cramp, of Philadelphia. As the Morning Post reminds us, in December 1908, Rear-Admiral Gamble was lent to the Turkish Government, in order to reorganize the navy, but returned to England in February, 1910. He was succeeded by Rear-Admiral Hugh Williams, who is still in Turkey. Little news has been heard of what progress has been made, but it is understood that Admiral Williams' duties are concerned only with the training of the personnel, and that he is not naval advisor on all matters as his predecessor was. Turkey recently ordered two Dreadnought-class battleships in England, but these are not yet even laid down.—Pages Weekly, Oct. 6.
UNITED STATES.
The United States Navy Department has given an order for 180 torpedoes to the Whitehead Torpedo Company, and Commodore Volnev O. Chase, who has been in command of the torpedo practice ship Montgomery, has been detached from that duty and ordered to England to superintend personally the construction of the torpedoes. This is the largest order for torpedoes that has ever been placed at one time by the American Government, and approximately 12 months will be required for their manufacture and delivery.—United Service Gazette.
Before a single gun of the 14-inch caliber has been manufactured in the United States, preparations are being pressed forward for the construction of an even greater weapon. Preliminary estimates and other computations for the construction of 16-inch guns for the navy are being made by Rear-Admiral Nathan C. Twining, Chief of the Bureau of Ordnance. It is not expected that the navy will have any immediate use for 16-inch guns, but owing to reports that are current that some other nations —particularly Great Britain and Germany—arc working on guns of larger caliber than 14-inch that are now used in the main batteries of first-class battleships of the United States fleet, it is thought wise to prepare to meet any such increase. Admiral Twining is determined not to be caught napping, if, owing to the action of the foreign powers, the Secretary of the Navy should decide that the 14-inch gun is not sufficiently powerful. According to statements emanating from the Ordnance Department of the United States, the projectiles of this new gun will weigh 2400 pounds, and is expected to penetrate the thickest armor plate with the greatest ease, and to burst on the inside of the battleship with the force of about 140 pounds of high explosive. One shot from the 16-inch gun, in the opinion of ordnance experts, would put the largest Dreadnought out of effective action, if it did not sink it. In print a 16-inch gun does not appear so much larger than a 14-inch gun, but the weight of a projectile from a 14-inch gun is 1660 pounds, against 2400 pounds for the larger caliber. A 14-inch gun will carry not more than 90 pounds of high explosive, while the projectile of a 16-inch gun will contain between 140 pounds and 150 pounds. Since the 13.5-inch gun is now actually entering our own active fleet, while Germany is said to have started the manufacture of a 14-inch weapon, and the United States purposes mounting a gun of similar caliber in the two battleships recently authorized by Congress, it is not by any means improbable that public opinion in the United States will compel the American Government to adopt a 16-inch weapon. It is even possible that this new gun will form the basis of a compromise between the advocates of two battleships next year and those who contend that one battleship is adequate. It may be decided to lay down an experimental ship carrying 16-inch guns. In this event, however, the completion of such a unit would be considerably delayed owing to the long time which must elapse before the trials of such a new weapon can be completed.—Naval and Military Record.
Naval Observation Tour.—A Favorable Impression. Mr. Meyer, Secretary of the United States Navy, who made a recent tour of observation in England, expressed himself as follows on his return to New York:
"I visited two of the largest Government navy yards, three shipbuilding plants on the Clyde, near Glasgow, and the Vickers yards at Barrow. There was a willingness everywhere to furnish information. I had conferences at the Admiralty in London with leading officials on matters of administration concerning the navy yards and the relations of the Admiralty with the fleets. I was attracted by the success in the Admiralty and the British Navy generally in abbreviating and simplifying correspondence, and I shall continue my previous efforts in that direction in our service.
"I found much to learn from the more humane way desertion and leave-breaking are handled and punished in England. I visited the detention barracks at Chatham, under the jurisdiction of the navy, and the barracks at Aldershot, under the jurisdiction of the army. It is at these barracks and similar ones that men are punished for offenses against discipline by continued occupation at drill and useful work during the whole of each day. The punishment periods are short, but a man so punished never wants to go back to it; he is kept so busy.
"No prison garb is worn, and though the men are confined in separate rooms, there is an absence of the brutalizing influence of a prison. I shall make an effort to establish the detention system as far as possible on these lines in the American Navy. A small start has been made in this direction, but much remains to be accomplished, and some legislation along more humane lines will be necessary, and I believe the Congress will be in sympathy with this.
"They are building in England and other countries large, fast armored cruisers of 27,000 tons, and with a speed of 28 knots, with which we have as yet nothing to compare. There has been some talk in our newspapers of a reaction toward smaller battleships in the British Navy, but I found no signs of such a tendency in England, nor any belief that reduction in size would take place in any navy.
"In studying the organization of the British and other leading fleets, I noted that all had the proper number of admirals of suitable rank, while in our country, we have nothing but rear-admirals. I believe we should have at least vice-admirals, if only to give the country proper recognition when our fleets meet foreign fleets at home or abroad."
A Press dispatch from London, under the date of September 16, says:
"Describing his recent visits to British dockyards, Secretary Meyer is reported to have expressed his special interest in the shipyards of Messrs. Yarrow & Co. because of the similarity between the circumstances which caused the removal of this firm's works from the Thames and those which exist today in regard to some of the United States Navy Yards.
"No doubt what Mr. Meyer has seen in England will confirm his views as to the need for closing down certain American yards, and in any case he must have found many arguments in support of such a policy in the history of the British Establishments.
"The reasons upon which the Secretary advocates this reorganization are not only economic, but strategical as well. Similar reasons led to the closing of the British dockyards at Woolwich and Deptford, historic establishments which built the entire fleet of Queen Elizabeth that defeated the Spanish Armada.
"Fifty years ago Woolwich Dockyard had an area of 56 acres and Deptford 38 acres, but both were closed for building, repairs, and docking purposes in 1860-70, Woolwich being allocated to the Naval Ordnance Department and Deptford transformed into a victualling yard and depot. At one time there were public shipyards also at Harwich, Deal, and Kinsale, but these have now disappeared.
"Similarly, within the last ten years Sheerness and Pembroke dockyards have only been saved from extinction by their use for the building or repair of small craft like scouts and destroyers, neither yard having a dock that could take a modern armorclad. On the other hand the dockyards of Portsmouth, Keyham (an adjunct of Devonport), and Hanibowline (Queenstown), have grown steadily in the same period, while an entirely new yard is being created at Rosyth, on the east coast of Scotland, and a first-class naval harbor has been provided at Dover.
"British establishments abroad have also been reduced in consequent of the new strategical policy of the Admiralty, which substituted fewer and larger ships, able to come home for refit and repair, for the numerous small ships which required expensive dockyard establishments to be maintained abroad for their use and equipment. Among the yards so abandoned or reduced were those at Trincomalee, Ascension, and Port Royal, while the yards at Halifax, Nova Scotia, Esquimalt, and Bermuda are now under the control of the Canadian Government.
"But it is not always the views of naval officers and administrators that are carried out, for in England, as in France and America, political influence exerted by those directly interested in the locality affected has stopped the progress of measures intended to promote naval efficiency.
"Such exaltation of vested and private interests over national interest must always be deplored, but the idea that the navy yards exist for the fleet and not the fleet for the yards is a very hard one to drive into the minds of the people."—Naval and Military Record.
After visiting foreign navy and shipbuilding yards, Secretary of the Navy Meyer has returned convinced that the Vickers Co., of England in its yard's at Barrow-in-Furness comes nearest supplying a model organization for copying in this country. As a result he has sent Captain A. B. Willetts and Captain E. Theiss, U. S. N., to make a more detailed study of the plant with a view to reporting suggested changes in our own organization. In the meantime Naval Constructor Holden A. Evans, U. S. N., has been ordered to Norfolk to assist in carrying out written instructions to the commandant for improvement in the issue and care of tools, handling of material, estimating on work and repairs, and in bringing about uniform methods in all shops. Mr. Meyer has no idea of making any changes in the organization in navy yards.—Shipping Illustrated.
United States Battle Practice.—The battle practice of the American Fleet began with the remarkable firing of the Delaware at the San Marcos, hits being made at between 15,000 and 16,000 yards, and no ranges less than 16,000 yards being tried. The same vessel was to carry out further firing of the same character, and two ships only were to fire competitively each day. There has also been experimental and night firing, and there was an expectation that by extending the firing over a period of 10 or 15 days rough weather might be encountered during part of the period. It was thought very desirable that the ships should do their work in difficult weather, and when rain, mist, and fog partially obscured the view. The smooth water methods of training have been abandoned, and officers are now required to do their firing in difficult conditions in the open sea. Elementary practice is no longer in vogue, and two battle practices will take place every year. There is to be no firing this year at ranges under 0000 yards. A great deal of work has been done in firing torpedoes in the open sea from battleships, destroyers, and submarines, and results have far exceeded expectations.—Army and Navy Gazette
ORDNANCE AND GUNNERY.
American Gunnery.—The firing at the San Marcos and some other circumstances have latterly caused special attention to be directed to the subject of gunnery in the American Navy, which is generally believed to have attained a very high level of efficiency. Excellent results seem to be attained without any very strenuous methods of preliminary training. The principal work takes place on board the ships, it being thought that the close relations between officers and men working under a system of control presents a considerable advantage. An appeal is made to the sporting element in the men, who are stimulated to keen emulation by money prizes and distinctions. The best shooting ship flies a particular flag, and turrets which have done the best shooting have the letter "E" painted upon them to signify "Excellent." Gunnery is constantly practiced on board, and when the men have gained a respectable degree of practical efficiency, the ships undertake further exercises, including calibration, gunlayers' tests, and battle practice. The gunlayers' tests are at a range of about 2000 yards, and the battle practice includes individual firing of ships, followed by divisional firing. The fire is directed in battleships by a lieutenant-commander as "ordnance officer," with a "ranger," "spotter," "tracer," and "sub-station superintendent" as his assistants. The object is to open effective fire at long range, and the lattice masts provide an elevated platform for the work of the ranger and spotter. Usually the captain confines himself to indicating the objects and the times for opening and ceasing fire. What special system of fire control exists seems not to be known. Generally the range being found, say, at 12,000 yards, trial rounds are fired, and the spotter on his platform at a height of about 100 feet above deck indicates errors by observing through proper glasses the fall of projectiles. If the platform should become untenable, the spotter would retire to a secondary station. The ordnance officer, in a central protected station, receives, by voice pipe or telephone, the range from the range-finding officer, and the angle of approach or otherwise from the tracer, and has graphic appliances for recording them. He then transmits the information by voice or optical signal to the stations of the guns. The system is centralized and yet disseminated. Very great confidence is felt in the spotter's ability to observe the fall of the shell, and in the methods of transmitting orders. There seems to be in general no individual firing, all the operations being conducted under a rigid system of fire control.
General satisfaction will be expressed at the decision of the Admiralty to utilize some of the old second-class torpedo-boats as practice targets. They are to be used during night firing, an indication of the importance which the Board attach to this branch of naval training. The boats are being gutted and filled with cork and other material so as to render them unsinkable, while above the upper deck canvas and wooden structures are being erected so as to cause them to resemble the target a modern torpedo vessel offers during night operations. When completed, these targets will be towed past firing ships at varying speeds at night and at different angles of bearing, so as to provide the most realistic practice. The Admiralty's decision suggests the inquiry whether the authorities could not do better than put up to auction the old battleships which are now passing out of the service.—Naval and Military Record.
Battle Practice.—The illness of Sir Francis Bridgeman and Rear-Admiral Bayly, both of whom we are glad to learn are progressing satisfactorily, has left Rear-Admiral Peirse in command of the First Division while the battle practice is being carried out. It is a coincidence that this should have happened, seeing that twelve months ago Admiral Peirse was himself Inspector of Target Practice, and was therefore present during the battle practice in another capacity. He embarked with his staff, augmented for the purpose, in the cruiser Hogue, and likewise his successor, Captain Montague Browning, had the Ettryalus, a sister ship, under his orders while the fleets are engaged in battle practice this year. It is not until 1910 that the Inspector of Target Practice had a special ship set apart for his use in this way, but the innovation only indicates the extension and development of the scope of his office since it was first established in 1905. This growth was remarked upon at length in one of the chapters of the last issue of the Naval Annual, in which the writer showed how, under the guidance of Sir Arthur Wilson, the tendency, already manifest in the time of Lord Fisher, to divide gunnery administration into two branches—making the Director of Naval Ordnance the Board's adviser as to material, and the Inspector of Target Practice the Board's adviser as to technique—had shown a distinct advance. Along this line the office of Inspector of Target Practice has grown gradually but continuously until it has become of great value to the service. With a permanent staff for the purpose, the shooting of the fleet can be analyzed from year to year, and every innovation or change of method or appliance reported upon, while the inspector and his subordinates, who are brought into contact with each captain and his gunnery organization, can collect and co-ordinate the experience of the whole fleet. This data in turn must be valuable to the Ordnance Department which supplies the guns, and to the gunnery schools which train the officers and men in the use of them.— Army and Navy Gazette.
New Method of Fire Control.—In the forthcoming battle practice, which is always the chief feature of the autumn work of our home fleets—if all the heavy and light gun competitions have been carried out in the spring, which is usually the case—it is expected that the battleship Neptune will be able to give a better account of herself than most of her sister battleships, provided the new Scott's concentrating and rapid-firing gun is brought into operation. It will be remembered that some important gunnery experiments were carried out immediately after the Neptune was commissioned for sea service, which demonstrated that a new arrangement had been devised by one of our cleverest gunnery experts, which increased both the rapidity and accuracy of 12-inch gunfire in a marked degree. Improvements have since been made, and it is probable on account of the very regrettable illness of that keen gunnery admiral, Sir Francis Bridgeman, that further trials have not taken place. In the battle-practice test, however, it will probably be found that the system will be used with a view to show its superiority over the old methods of firing, and if it is in the hands of capable experts, as in all probability it will be, then it will have a fair chance of showing how far forward this new arrangement of fire control will carry us. As regards the position in the fleet gained by such advantages, the authorities will probably take care to see that the prizes and credit for good performance are arranged in a manner to secure justice all-round. The important point is to test the new method with the old, and see what ground has been gained.—Army and Navy Gazette.
Concentrating Gun Fire.—We have already dealt with the value of concentrated fire, and given our reasons for holding that the middle-line system of placing the turrets for primary guns will in future be continued in the British Fleet, no matter whether the twin-gun turret be adhered to, or a triple-gun or four-gun turret be eventually adopted by our gunnery experts and designers. There is another important point in connection with getting the most effective gun fire that a ship is capable of, and that is the system by which gun fire is arranged and controlled. It must be confessed that the British system has in the past been in a somewhat unsettled and unsatisfactory condition, owing to the great latitude allowed to the gunnery officers of the fleet in working out their own ideas—in their own ships—as to the best method to arrange and control gun fire. Experiments have been carried out in a sort of haphazard manner ever since the Dreadnought came into existence, and only reached what looked like its climax, and the dawn of a more fixed and better state of affairs, during the carrying out of a series of experimental gunnery trials in the battleship Neptune, shortly after she commissioned, a few months back, for her first period in the fighting line.
While the Neptune was experimenting with controlling apparatus for the primary guns, it leaked out that Vice-Admiral Sir Percy Scott was on board, and that a system which he had invented had been under trial, and had proved highly successful in controlling gun fire and in increasing its rapidity and accuracy. The system came through an exhaustive test exceedingly well, and although there were improvements which suggested themselves as the experiments proceeded, yet the system proved to be such a great gain in nearly all directions, over every other system previously tried, that there can be but little doubt that Sir Percy's methods of controlling and arranging gun fire, from the primary armament, will be the one to come into general use throughout the whole of the British Fleet, and so systemize what has been more or less a go-as-you-please, or haphazard way of controlling the fire from heavy guns.
But our navy was not alone in lacking a successful and uniform system of control before the advent of Sir Percy Scott's method, for the Germans, always secretive, have been unable to adequately or effectively conceal their methods, and undoubtedly their perplexities have been as trying as ours; and, so far as is known, they have not yet found a gunnery admiral to solve this problem as Admiral Scott solved it for the British Fleet. The Germans adopted a system of firing their primary guns in succession from forward, or aft, according to the direction of the wind, so that the smoke of one pair of guns should not interfere with the firing of another pair; and then, when all the primary guns had been fired, they proposed to fire a broadside from the secondary armament. But good as this beautiful theory looked on paper, it was found in practice that the system was nothing short of complete failure, for the foremost guns were always ready to be fired again long before the other primary guns had their turn. Obviously this system wastes time and prevents the maximum amount of fire being extracted from the primary armament, while the secondary armament never comes into play at all without sacrificing primary fire.
It takes our bluejackets from 15 to 20 seconds, only, to load a 12-inch gun, while a 5-inch or 6-inch gun takes only eight or ten seconds. The full rate of fire which German ships should develop has, therefore, never been approached, and the British Navy stands out as supreme in rapidity and accuracy of controlled fire, as arranged in the Neptune. Sir Percy Scott's system, which consists of firing broadsides of half the armament, developed a rate of fire with the 12-inch guns of as much as 20 rounds per minute; and this rate allowed each gun forty seconds to load, which shows that under the most favorable conditions, a better rate than 20 rounds of 12-inch per minute from the ship could be developed, as 30 seconds only are required to prepare each of these weapons for a second round from the moment of firing the first round.—United Service Gazette.
Gun Accidents from Back-Flame.—Our entente friends have had quite a run of bad luck in their naval affairs during the last few years, and this misfortune includes the destructive explosions which caused the loss of two first-class battleships of fairly modern build, the striking of a capital ship on the ways while being launched, submarine accidents, and several gun explosions which have cost life and limb. The latest of these gun explosions, or to speak more correctly, the explosion of gun-charges near the gun, was in the armored cruiser Gloire recently, while gun practice was being carried out on board that vessel. Apparently the gun a which the accident took place was firing at an object that lay dead to windward of the weapon, and so when the breach was opened the wind naturally blew through the bore and forced all the back-flame and noxious fumes from the gases, into the mouths and down the throats of all the men standing in rear of the gun. The back-flame also burnt some of the men, and, worse still, set two gun charges that lay near alight, and caused in explosion which killed three men outright and severely injured n others: some of which latter have since died. The gunnery lieutenant was among the injured. Such accidents as this have occurred in nearly all first-class navies, including our own. The precautions adopted in our own fleet now, and which have so far been effective in preventing further accidents of this kind, are, first, to avoid ever having exposed charges in rear of the gun when firing; second, in all large guns to force a strong current of air through the bore directly the gun is fired and before the breech is opened, so as to force all flame and fumes out of the muzzle; and third, with smaller guns to train the muzzle of the gun away from the wind before reloading.—United Service Gazette.
Armor Plate Manufacture.—Some interesting figures relative to the cost of armor plate manufacture were given by the Rome correspondent of the Times the other day. The Italian Government invited tenders for the supply of 4100 tons of armor plating for the Italian Navy, and as a result the contract was awarded to the Carnegie Steel Company, whose price was 2132 francs a ton. The next lowest tender was that of a French group represented by Messrs. Schneider, who offered to supply the armor at 2465 francs a ton: then came Messrs. Cammell Laird, whose price was 2465 francs; and lastly Krupp, who offered to supply the armor at 2700 francs. It was not stated whether the armor required was of the heaviest class, or only for deck plating; probably it was for the latter or some secondary purpose, as 4000 tons of the thickest armor would not be much more than enough for one vessel. The main point of interest, however, was the securing of the contract by an American firm at a price (about £84 10s. per ton) much lower, not only than the British firmtender for the same contract, but considerably below the price usually paid by our own Admiralty for armor plate. Supposing the armor required by the Italians to have been for deck purposes, it is conceivable that the Carnegie Company would make an effort to push their new vanadium plates, but no explanation of this kind can be given for the low price of the French tender. The British firm's offer amounted to £105 17s. a ton, whereas it is understood that £120 a ton is the usual price paid for the armor of British vessels. But unless more is known about the type and quality of the armor supplied to the Italians it would be inadvisable to draw too sweeping conclusions on such a matter.—Army and Navy Gazette.
A Telescopic Sight for Machine-Guns.—The importance of fire from machine-guns is generally recognized, but various difficulties have hitherto stood in the way of using an accurate telescopic sight, the principal one being the mirage from the barrel and water-jacket, which affects the telescope more than the open sight. Messrs. Zeiss, of Jena, have now brought out a sight which promises to overcome this difficulty. It is a vertical prismatic telescope with horizontal object-glass and eyepiece, so arranged that the object-glass is well away from the hot jacket. It magnifies only two diameters, and has a field of no less than fourteen degrees. The elevation is given on a circular dial, and the sight can be cross-leveled to eliminate the error which would otherwise result when firing from sloping ground. In view of the importance attached nowadays to machine-gun fire, the new sight should prove a valuable addition to these weapons.—Army and Navy Gazette.
Disposition of Guns in Dreadnoughts.—Foreign Navies are Adopting the American Center-line Plan. By Percival A. Hislam.—The total number lips of the all-big-gun type now built, building, or provided for in the current year is exactly one hundred. Great Britain leads with thirty (which includes two cruisers building at the cost of Australia and Zealand), followed by Germany with twenty-one, and the United States with twelve. Japan, having this year placed orders for no fewer than five ships of the type (one building in England and four to be laid down in Japan), has increased her total to seven. Russia, France, Italy and Austria have four ships apiece, none being yet completed, and the first-named power proposes as soon as possible to raise her total to twelve. Brazil and Spain each possesses three Dreadnoughts, two of the Brazilian only being completed; and the list is completed by the Argentine Republic, with two ships on the stocks; Turkey with two recently ordered in England; and Chili with two which are shortly to be placed out to contract.
In this total of a hundred ships there are thirty-one whose details either have not yet been decided upon or are not yet known. The policy of secrecy, inaugurated by Great Britain with her pioneer Dreadnought, has been lowed by several other powers. Germany conceals the particulars of her new warships very successfully, and only nine can be spoken of with any certainty. Latterly, Great Britain has relaxed the policy, and the only vessels whose details are uncertain are the five of the 1911-12 program. Nothing is known of this year's quintet of Japanese ships except that they will carry 13.5-inch guns; and other ships where similar lack of knowledge exists are the new American vessels to be laid down this year (which, it is expected, will have ten 14-inch guns in two twin and two triple turrets), the last two of the four Austrian vessels, the Turkish and Chilian ships, and the Brazilian Rio de Janeiro. The last named vessel was for some time reported to be designed to carry twelve 14.3-incch, fourteen 6-inch and fourteen 4-inch guns; but it has latterly been stated that she will after all be no more than a replica of the Minas Geraes and Sao Paulo.
In the case of the sixty-nine ships whose principal details are known, there is a very wide divergence in the mounting of the main battery. This would necessarily follow from the fact that some are armed with eight, some with ten, some with twelve, and three even with thirteen heavy guns; but there are also considerable differences even among ships with the same number of guns.
The first Dreadnought to be laid down and completed—the British ship of that name—has ten 12-inch guns so arranged as to produce a broadside efficiency of 80 per cent (Fig. 10). Three turrets are on the center line, and so can bear on either beam; but the other two are placed abreast on the beams, so that each can bear on only one broadside. In a broadside engagement, therefore, two guns out of ten would be useless. In spite of the obvious drawbacks of the arrangement, however, it was repeated in six later ships—Bellerophon, Temeraire, Superb, St. Vincent, Collingwood and Vanguard; and the result is that these seven ships, if they formed one battle unit, would have no fewer than fourteen 12-inch guns out of seventy useless for a line-ahead action.
The seven British ships are the only five-turreted Dreadnoughts which cannot dispose 100 per cent of their heavy guns on the beam. The American five-turreted ships Delaware, North Dakota, Florida and Utah (Fig. 6) have all their turrets on the middle line, with the result that these four ships, mounting ten 12-inch guns apiece and forty in all, are equal in broadside action to five of the British ships mounting fifty 12-inch guns, since only forty of these could be brought to bear on the beam. We are not dealing here with secondary batteries; but the best five of these seven British ships mount ninety-two 4-inch all told (twenty each in the St. Vincents, and sixteen in the Bellerophons), while the four American vessels have sixty 5-inch which, allowing for the much greater power of the 5-inch gun, is in all probability a superior equipment. In her later vessels Great Britain began to show signs of being influenced by the full-broadside argument. Its force was, however, admitted grudgingly, and 2 wavering effort made to combine a full broadside with a heavy fore and aft fire. The Neptune, Hercules and Colossus were the result (Fig. 9). These ships, like the earlier Dreadnoughts, have three turrets on the middle line, but the wing pair are placed en echelon across the deck amidships, while the last turret but one from aft is superposed to fire over the aftermost. The result is that six guns can be fired ahead and eight aft is superposed to fire over the aftermost. Over a large angle, however, the fire of the port turret is masked on the starboard side by the starboard turret, and vice versa, and the lengthy experiments which were carried out in the Mediterranean early this year are believed to have proved that the compromise is not a very happy one.
At any rate it has been abandoned in later ships. The Orion, Thunderer Conqueror and Monarch (1909-10 program), and the King George V, Centurion, Ajax and Audacious (1910-11 program), will have ten 13.5inch guns in five turrets, all on the center line. The second from forward will be superposed, so that four guns will bear forward; and the same arrangement is repeated aft, the fifth turret being amidships (Fig. 7). In these ships, therefore, Great Britain for the first time acknowledges the superiority of the all-on-center-line system which has been applied to American Dreadnoughts since the first was designed. The ten 14-inch guns of the Texas and New York will be mounted on thin plan.
The last of the known five-turreted ships are the Italian vessels Conte di Cavour, Leonardo da Vinci, and Giulio Cesare. In the case of the last two it is possible that the original design may not be adhered to, but they were all designed to carry, and the Conte di Cavour at any rate will be equipped with thirteen 12-inch guns arranged as shown in Fig. 11 of the diagram. There will be three three-gun turrets, one forward, one aft and one amidships, and two twin-turrets will fire over the fore and aft turrets respectively. There will thus be a full broadside fire of thirteen 12inch guns, while five will bear ahead and astern. If this arrangement is not carried out in the other two ships it will be to allow of the mounting of heavier guns. It may be mentioned that the guns in the triple-turrets are arranged on two levels, two being below, and the third above and between them. In this way the breadth of the turret is saved at the cost of additional height.
There are comparatively few four-turreted Dreadnoughts. The first were, of course, the American Michigan and South Carolina, although for various reasons they were not at sea until after the British Invincible cruisers. The Michigans have eight 12-inch guns in four turrets, two forward and two aft, the one nearer the middle of the ship being superposed in each case (Fig. 1). The British Invincible, Inflexible and Indomitable also have a nominally full broadside (Fig. 3), two turrets being on the center line, and two en echelon amidships; but the latter (as in the Neptune) are so close together that the arc covered by eight guns is very small. In the Indefatigable this fault was to a certain extent remedied, by increasing the distance between these two turrets; but the authorities were finally driven to adopt the American system, and the Lion, Princess Royal and Queen Mary are the result. (Fig. 2). These ships have eight 13.5-inch guns in four middle-line turrets, the second from forward being superposed. Only two guns, therefore, can fire aft, as compared with six in the previous cruiser-Dreadnoughts built for the British navy.
The Indefatigable system has been followed by Germany in the case of the Von der Tann (cruiser), and by Spain in the battleships Espana, Jaime I and Alfonso XIII. The Von der Tann has eight 11-inch guns and the Spanish vessel eight 12-inch; and in each the longitudinal space between the echeloned turrets is much more than in the British ships, while the starboard turret, instead, of the port, is nearer the bows (Fig. 41 The British cruisers New Zealand and Australia, building for Pacific service, are similar to the Indefatigable.
The other known four-turreted ships are equipped on the triple-turret system, which has lately come into considerable vogue. All are armed with twelve 12-inch guns, their names and nationality being: Peiropazlovsk, Poltava. Sevastopol and Gangut (Russian), Dante, Alighieri (Italian), and Viribus Unitis and a vessel at present known as V (Austrian). It has been rumored that in the case of the Austrian ships two turrets will be superposed, but this lacks confirmation (Fig. 5).
Dreadnoughts with six turrets are again comparatively few in number, but present some striking contrasts. The American Wyoming and Arkansas have twelve 12-inch guns in six center-line turrets, two forward and four abaft of the superstructure. The second turret from forward is superposed, as is also the second from the stern, the object in each case being to increase the volume of fire along the line of the keel. The fourth turret from aft is also superposed above the third, but here the saving' of length was the object in view, as these guns do not bear aft. (Fig. 12.)
The only other six-turret Dreadnoughts with a 100 per cent broadside are the Argentine ships Moreno and Rivadavia. These vessels with twelve 12-inch guns have four turrets on the middle line and two echeloned (Fig. 13). There has been, and probably will continue to be, much controversy as to which is the more effective arrangement; but the fact remains that the Wyomings can cover an arc of 95 degrees on either beam with all twelve guns, while in the case of the Argentine ships this is 10 degrees less. For ten guns the respective figures are 120 degrees and 105 degrees, and for eight 135 degrees and 120 degrees. The Brazilian battleships Sao Paulo and Minas Geraes have their guns arranged on a similar plan to the Argentine vessels, but the superstructure divides the echeloned turrets, which are therefore not available on both broadsides.
For practical purposes the French battleships Jean Bart, Courbet. France, and Paris are similar to the Brazilian, two turrets being mounted forward and aft (with one superposed in each case), and two abreast amidships. (Fig. 13.)
We now come to a striking variation in design. The German battleships Rheinlsnd, Posen, Nassau, and Westfalen all have twelve 11-inch guns as their main armament; but they are so disposed in their six turrets that only eight guns bear on the beam. (See Fig. 15.) It was at first thought that this system was due to a misapprehension as to the system of naval tactics which the Dreadnought principle involved, but this is hardly borne out by the fact that the arrangement is being strictly adhered to. The Thiiringen, Helgoland, Ostfriesland and Oldenburg are armed with twelve 12.2-inch guns apiece; but the distribution remains the same. Although, therefore, these ships carry as many big guns as the Wyoming, the latter is 50 per cent superior on the broadsides. The German vessels, with their twelve guns are no better as line-ahead broadside fighters than the Michigan, the British Invincibles, or even the 15,500-ton Spanish Espahas—leaving questions of speed and protection out of consideration.
Curiously enough, the Japanese have also adopted this system, at least for their first two all-big-gun ships, the Kawachi and Settsu, for the distribution of the 12-inch guns in these ships is the same as that of the 11inch and 12.2-inch in the German vessels. The average student of the naval war between Japan and Russia will be hard put to it to find any justification for this subordination of the broadside: and it is more difficult to understand since it has been reliably stated that all the data gleaned by the Japanese were placed at the disposal of the British authorities The same tactical data could hardly justify the Orion (Fig. 7) and at the same time excuse the Kawachi (Fig. 15.)
Summarizing these details, it will be found that the total number of heavy guns mounted in the 69 ships of the Dreadnought era whose details re known is 723, a total that could not have been attained with fewer than Si ships of the pre-Dreadnought era. The ownership of the guns, as well as certain other details, is shown in the following table.
Countries
| Number of ships
| Details known of
| Guns mounted (inches caliber)
| |||||||
14-inch
| 13.5-inch
| 12-inch
| 11-inch
| |||||||
Total
| Broad-side
| Total
| Broad-side
| Total
| Broad-side
| Total
| Broad-side
| |||
Great Britain
| 32
| 27
| ? | ? | 104
| 104
| 252
| 238
| ? | ? |
United States
| 12
| 10
| 20
| 20
| ? | ? | 100
| 100
| ? | ? |
Germany
| 21
| 9
| ? | ? | ? | ? | 48
| 32
| 56
| 40
|
Italy
| 4
| 4
| ? | ? | ? | ? | 51
| 51
| ? | ? |
Russia
| 4
| 4
| ? | ? | ? | ? | 48
| 48
| ? | ? |
France
| 4
| 4
| ? | ? | ? | ? | 40
| 49
| ? | ? |
Spain
| 3
| 3
| ? | ? | ? | ? | 24
| 24
| ? | ? |
Argentine
| 2
| 2
| ? | ? | ? | ? | 24
| 24
| ? | ? |
Brazil
| 3
| 2
| ? | ? | ? | ? | 24
| 20
| ? | ? |
Japan
| 7
| 2
| ? | ? | ? | ? | 24
| 16
| ? | ? |
Austria
| 4
| 2
| ? | ? | ? | ? | 24
| 24
| ? | ? |
Turkey
| 2
| 0
| ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
Chili
| 2
| 0
| ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
Totals
| 100
| 69
| 20
| 104
| 543
| 56
| ||||
Number of guns in three-gun turrets
| ? | ? | 111
| ? | ||||||
Number of guns in center-line turrets
| 20
| 104
| 407
| 20
|
It will be noted that as the caliber increases so does the desire to place all the guns on the middle line.
The Catastrophe of the Liberte.—The Court of Inquiry will not have completed its investigations before next week. In order to get at the causes of the catastrophe, it is determined to follow up every clue having a practical bearing on the matter and to hear all testimony.
Any attempt at the present time to anticipate the conclusions of the Court would be premature. Such opinions as have so far found their way into print arc only hypothetical.
Can the origin of the explosions be placed to the secondary battery magazines with their old-style powder? Is the theory tenable that the fire began in the starboard, forward, 19 centimeter magazines where powder of recent manufacture (AM8) that is, powder containing 8 per cent of amylite, was stored? Finally, can the hypothesis of criminal malevolence be entertained?
The Court is determined to make these points clear, but the task is not an easy one on account of the discrepancies in the depositions of the survivors. The injured are being examined at the hospital and the uninjured are being taken to the wreck to facilitate their declarations. Since the Court is performing its duty conscientiously we should await its report, especially as the Minister will immediately authorize the carrying out of such measures as it may recommend.
At the request of Rear-Admiral Gaschard, Chairman of the Board, Lieutenant de Rothiacob, the admiral's aide and Lieutenant Le Do, ordnance officer of the Justice, who were recorders of the Court of Inquiry, have been appointed members.
On the 7th of October the Cabinet discussed the measures to be adopted after the explosion on the Liberie. It was decided to create a board to investigate service powder and to propose measures for the storage, preservation, and the supervision of powder supplies. The Board, composed of some of the most competent specialists, will begin its investigations at once and will make the necessary recommendations.
The order to remove from shipboard as soon as practicable all powder manufactured prior to 1902, which applied originally only to the squadrons, has been extended to apply to the schools, the flotillas, and more generally, to all the ships of the navy.
The Minister of the Navy has decided to suppress the third revision of Article 39 of the orders of October 1, 1908, which is the only regulation affecting the preservation of ammunition on board warships. This clause provided for putting back into the magazine after firing, ammunition that had missed fire, etc. Consequently, it will not be permitted in the future to return to the magazine ammunition that has been placed in a gun for firing purposes.
The Minister has also decided to require at all times and in all circumstances the presence on board battleships and large cruisers of a head of department who shall be responsible for the command of the ship. The regulations will be changed to this effect.
The large crane of the shipyards of La Seyne is being utilized for clearing the wreck of the Liberie. The wreck of the Liberie has been put in charge of the station at Toulon. Commander Baucheron de Boissoudy is in charge of the investigation and the salvage. He has under his orders gangs of workmen belonging to the construction corps, the ordnance department, and other branches of the service. Various effects belonging to the personnel of the Liberte have been found in the wreckage.
The roadstead being scattered with debris, divers from the various ships have been exploring its bottom and the dangerous spots have been marked by buoys.
It will take two months and a half to repair the damages done the Republique. The 37-ton armor plate was crushed in on the starboard quarter behind the 30 centimeter turret. In the very same spot, and almost at the same time, a melinite shell from the Liberte exploded. The explosion of this projectile undoubtedly explains the breach made in the armored deck. The base of the projectile was found on the deck and the materiel, clothing, etc., which were struck by the shell, show the usual shattering caused by melinite. A curious fact was the unscrewing and dislodgement of the 65 millimeter T. R. gun from its mount between decks on the starboard quarter.
Toulon is beginning to recover its normal aspect. Our private correspondents state that the morale of the officers and crews has not been affected.
Now that everyone has recovered from the stupefaction of the first moments and the funeral rites have been tendered the victims, work has been renewed with the same spirit as before the catastrophe.
The muster-roll of the Liberte will be closed on the 20th of October.
As far as possible, all the records destroyed in the explosion are to be restored, such as the liberty lists, muster-rolls, enlistment records, pay-rolls, conduct books, etc. In addition, declarations of the loss of effects have to be taken, indemnities to be paid, the families of the victims to be relieved, etc.
After the explosion of the Una, many months were required to complete this work, and there are no prospects of a speedier settlement in the case of the Liberte.
An authoritative list of the missing has not yet been drawn up for the following reasons: The muster-rolls of the Liberte went down with the ship and the accounts kept at Brest, a pay station, did not show the most recent transfers. A report of transfers was to have been furnished aboard ship on the very day of the catastrophe. Consequently it has not been possible to draw up an accurate liberty list.
Since the catastrophe of the Liberte, a notable increase in the voluntary enlistments has been recorded. Finistere in particular, has furnished a large number of young recruits.
MARINE ENGINEERING.
Thermit. Edited by R. H. D.—The use of "Thermit" for emergency repairs in marine service is rapidly increasing. Among the examples of work recently done by this means are included the repair of the port propeller shaft, 10-inches diameter, of the U. S. Engineers Dredge Galveston, at Galveston, Texas: The welding of an 8-inch crank shaft for an Aldrich pump, which was accomplished in three days, using 215 pounds of Thermite: The welding of the main shaft of the steamer Manhanset, which was out of commission but eight days for this repair: The repair of the stern-post of the steamer Moses Taylor, at Cleveland, Ohio, which was completed between the afternoon of August 19 and the morning of August 23. This break was 8 ½ x 12 inches in section, and about 725 pounds of metal were used in making the repair. The welding of the rudder stock for one of the large lake passenger steamers, 12-inches diameter, was successfully accomplished in a very short time after docking.
An interesting repair was recently accomplished in Germany, of a somewhat different type from those above: A large horizontal suction gas engine had broken the outboard jaw of one of its main bearing sockets by back firing; a new jaw of cast steel was cast on to the cast iron frame, without dismantling the engine in any way except to remove the shaft and bearing boxes; this required the use of about 550 pounds of metal and was thoroughly successful, as well, of course, as being much more economical and requiring much shorter time than any other method of repair.
The torpedo tender Dixie has used Thermit with success on a number of repairs of various types, and is continuing its use where the work is of a suitable nature.
The Admiralty and Naval Engineering.—Now that the cadets who entered the naval service under the "common entry and training system" introduced in 1902 are about to attain official rank in the fleet, the Admiralty have issued additional instructions regarding the preliminary work of these sub-lieutenants and the apportionment of officers to special duties in the engineering, gunnery, torpedo, navigation, and marine departments. These instructions, we may say at the outset, do not allay our anxiety, expressed time and again during the past seven years, as to the adequacy of the practical course of engineering embraced in the scheme of training for the specialized duties which develop upon the engineers who have to deal with the extreme complications now common in warships. Resisting the temptation to enter once more upon the subject, upon which nearly all engineers are agreed, we content ourselves here with a consideration of the course now mapped out by the Admiralty for the immediate future.
For the next two years the embryo officer, irrespective of his ultimate function and position in the personnel of a ship, will serve afloat. During that period three weeks in every quarter will be served in the engine-room in the discharge of the ordinary duties of a junior engineer officer. For the officer whose later work is to be on the bridge, or on deck, this may suffice, especially as during the past nine years such officers have been devoting a considerable time to study of, and observational instruction in, various mechanical subjects. But for the officer who is, by choice, or by Admiralty selection, to be responsible for work in the engineering department of the ship in later years, the time stipulated is inadequate. It would seem from the amounts of time devoted to the various subjects that those in authority regard the relative value of the machinery in a warship at 23 per cent of the entire structure. This is so obviously a depreciation of the importance of speed in tactics, to say nothing of other matters in which efficient engineering skill is all-important, that little argument is necessary to prove its fallacy. It is true that, as we shall presently explain, lieutenants selected for engineering duty will undergo a further specialized training; but in this two years' early course there will be consolidated that feeling, which has been suggested for nine years to the mind of young officers, that engineering is of secondary or tertiary importance, and unworthy of permanent acceptance as the subject of a life's work. That, indeed, is one of the strong reasons against the common entry and training scheme. Under it engineering has become a series of little by-paths on the climb up the hill of success in naval life; these are frequented by youths, at the command of the curriculum, for a short period, the main road to the admiral's bridge being always the dominant objective. A youth has always difficulty in concentrating effort until he is certain that he is working towards a definite goal. Indecision as to the ultimate destination breeds indifference.
One year after attaining the rank of sub-lieutenant—a year hence— choice may be made of one or other of the branches of the service; but a definite confirmation, or compulsory selection, will not be made until two years from now. Each officer is to indicate his first preference, giving also his alternatives in order. The authorities will fill up the requirements of each branch, and it may—we should say it certainly will—result that many officers will be appointed to branches, especially to engineering, who have no great ambition in that direction. Time will tell; so that we need not discuss this question, nor enforce the view that the making of a nun an engineer against his desires cannot conduce to efficiency in the service. When nominated a lieutenant (E.) he is to attend special engineering classes at Greenwich College for six months. The engineering course at Greenwich has done wonders for the present engineers, but it must not be forgotten that they laid a splendid foundation in their previous training, in which practical work formed a most important part. Following the Greenwich course, a year is to be spent in practical work in one of the dockyards. If successful in examination at the end of this period, the lieutenant (E.) will go into the service as a junior engineering officer afloat, getting 4s. per day. He will be a member of the Military branch, conform to its regulations, and obtain promotion accordingly, his pay as commander becoming 5s. per day.
A few officers will be selected from the lieutenants (E.) to undergo a two years' course of scientific training at Greenwich College and a year at sea in order to provide a flow of engineering officials at the Admiralty and dockyards. Upon proving their ability by examination they become specialists, and will be designated by E.t after their rank. These specialists will be paid 5s. per day as lieutenants, 7s. as commanders, and 7s. as captains plus 5s. as command money. In this case, as with ordinary officers (E.), charge pay, senior engineers' allowance and flag allowance will be paid as at present. The specialists will serve in ships if no shore appointment is available. Captains (E.t) may be promoted to flag rank, but will not take command of sea-going ships or fleets.
These specialists, as well as the ordinary officers (E.), may, on passing the examination for commander, leave the engineering branch of the service and take up deck duties. Here, as throughout the whole system, there is displayed a complete lack of appreciation of the importance of ripe practical experience in the engine-room. It is notorious that in the past the "loaves and fishes" have gone to the military officer. The Admiralty have encouraged this by the abundance of distinctions, decorations, and other honors conferred on the military officer, and by the neglect of the engineer when such recognition was made for faithful service. When distinguished visitors are received the engineer is forgotten; this is a small affair, but it is not without its effects. There are, too, many allowances to the navigating and bridge officers in pilotage money, etc., which materially increase their emoluments. And, finally, there is the higher rank, and the possibility of winning glory in the command of a ship or a fleet. These superior inducements of the military branch will be ever present to the engineering officer, especially if he has been forced to enter the department at the outset of his career as an officer afloat. His ambitious eye will, therefore, always be on the bridge, and thus it will eventuate that the engine-room will be for him "no continuing city," and he will be reconciled to his immediate surroundings only by the probability that service in the engine-room efficiently done will count in the promotion to that sphere which is higher, according to the world's opinion of the deck branch.
The advancement of the most efficient lieutenants (E.) or lieutenants (E.t) to commanders in the military branch will so seriously affect the machinery department as to be disastrous for the service. One has only to reflect upon the great advance in marine, and especially naval, engineering during the past ten years to realize the enormous value of practical experience, as well as wider scientific knowledge, if the best is to be achieved from these improvements, and particularly if probabilities of breakdowns are to be anticipated on the spot. If, then, upon winning experience, men are to be permitted to desert the engine-room and to deplete the staff of its best officers, grave results must follow. The engineering profession is as honorable and as worthy of recognition as any other—fuller of interest than even the military branch of the navy—and upon it depends the success of the fleet in peace and in war. "The man behind the man behind the gun" can win or lose actions, and once an engineer always an engineer should be the rule. We can see no justification for this practice of first training officers as engineers and, when they are in the position to apply experience, to allow them to pass to another branch of the service, where their special experience is inapplicable or of little avail. The idea is contrary to all the tenets of a successful commercial nation. If the engineering work is not as popular as the military branch, the remedy lies with the authorities, and we have indicated some directions in which the disparity may be lessened if not removed. The first step should be one to equalize the conditions of the present engineering officers with the present military officers.
We are encouraged in the hope that the Admiralty will yet see their way to prevent this desertion of the engineering branch by the amendments they are now introducing in the case of marine officers. Here the intention was to make the marine not only co-equal with the others, but to permit the officers to pass at a certain stage of their career into the general naval service. This is changed. A lieutenant (R.M.) will, as a rule, remain attached to his corps throughout his career, gaining promotion as in the military branch. Only in certain cases can he pass to the military branch, and then solely at a later period in his service. Since this breach in the scheme has been made, there is hope that it will soon be applied to the engineering branch; the sooner the better for the navy. Moreover, when it appears as if there would be a certainty of a paucity of volunteers for the marine branch, a certain number of applicants are to be received into the branch without passing through Osborne and Dartmouth, a special course being provided for such. Here the principal of common entry and training is departed from. We do not blame the authorities. To profit by the teaching of experience is, on the contrary, praiseworthy. We hope the profit will yet extend to the engineering branch—Engineering.
Electric Drives for Screw Propellers. By H. A. Mavor.—The problems of marine engineering have until recent years been solved exclusively by the application of various forms of the reciprocating steam engine, and the power, speed, form, and general arrangement of power-driven vessels have been developed in connection with this means of propulsion. The advent of other appliances has opened up new lines of development, and in certain departments there is evidence of need for intermediate devices between the power-producing and the power-absorbing elements.
The necessity for these devices arises when the properties of the propeller in respect of rate of revolution are incompatible with those of the power-generator. This incompatibility is most conspicuous in vessels which have to operate at relatively slow speeds. An examination of the conditions which have emerged in the development of marine propulsion soon shows that the incompatibility is not accidental, or due to imperfections in the design, construction, or use of the propelling equipment, but that it is associated with the essential properties of the substances and appliances with which we have to deal.
It may be said in general terms that high efficiency is associated with low rate of revolution of the propeller, while in the steam-turbine high rates of revolution are essential to the most economical use of the steam Internal-combustion engines have speeds more nearly approximating those of reciprocating steam-engines, but here also there is a tendency to speed: higher than are convenient or economical from the propeller standpoint
In addition to those fundamental incompatibilities arising from causes out of the reach of direct accommodation, there are other conditions which limit the direct application of engine to propeller. The draft, beam, and form of the vessel limit the area of the propeller. The traffic tor which the vessel is designed influences the determination whether one, two, or more propellers are to be used, and the speed, size, and form of the vessel determine limits to the designer's choice. All these considerations taken together frequently fix the diameter, pitch and thrust of the propeller, and within very narrow limits, also the rate of revolution Now this rate of revolution is not always the most favorable for the power-generator, and the designer is in such cases compelled to resort to new expedients if he is to attain the standard of efficiency in power generation which has been set by the results attained on land. At the present moment the economy of power production in the best practice on land is considerably in advance of what has been done at sea. The principal reason for the better economy of the land work is the higher rate of revolution of the power-generator when untrammeled by propeller conditions. There are cases where the special limitations in respect of dimensions and weights permissible for the machinery are such as to preclude the use of any intermediate mechanism between the prime mow and the propeller.
In a ship whose voyage is short, whose speed is high, displacement small, and the propeller efficiency as good as is attainable, and the quantity of fuel carried small relative to the weight of machinery, the possible economy in fuel may be insufficient to warrant any increase in the weight of machinery; or, to put the case otherwise, it is advisable to sacrifice economy in fuel to keep down the weight of the equipment—e. g., a vessel running one-day voyages, and burning 50 tons of coal, could not possibly submit to an increase in weight of machinery in excess of the coal-saving, because such increase would increase the displacement and the power necessary to drive the vessel. If, on the other hand, the vessel makes 2 10-day voyage, and the saving in fuel carried amount to 10 tons per day, a considerable increase in weight of machinery might be associated with decreased displacement and a substantial all-around economy.
Various methods of making the required adaptation of generator to propeller are at present under trial. For this mechanical gearing by toothed wheels or hydraulic transmission may be considered serious competitors with electric transmission, but for large powers it seems reasonable to expect that electric transmission, which is already developed for this very purpose on land, is likely to find an equally useful field where the conditions are such as to require an intermediate device at sea.
The cost, weight, and efficiency of electric transmission compare favorably in the examples which have been examined with either of the two competing methods. There are other important qualifications of electric transmission in which it stands altogether unrivaled. The most important of these qualifications are: It provides a ready means of reversing the direction of rotation of the propeller without changing the direction of rotation of the power-generator.
The electric transmission also provides means for changing the speed ratio between generator and propeller, so as to permit of the power of the generator being developed under the most favorable conditions at all speeds of the ship.
Lastly, it provides means for applying the power of one or more engines to one or more propellers, so that the power-generating units may be so disposed as to give the highest efficiency, and when they are not required they can be stopped. These properties of the electric transmission supply exactly what is required to render steam-turbines, and also internal-combustion engines, completely adaptable to the purpose required. Both types of power-generators give their best efficiency when full speed of rotation is maintained, even when running below full power. It is, therefore, advantageous to keep the engine revolutions within the range of governor control, while the required speed change is accomplished by electric combinations.
The properties of the electric motor lend themselves well to the requirements of maneuvering. The rate of reversal is under perfect control. The possibilities of rapid and certain action are more than attainable in a reciprocating steam-engine connected direct to the propeller, and the electric motor is applicable to powers for which there is no possibility of using anything in the nature of reversing gears or clutches.
The property of combining the power of more than one engine for application to one or more propellers is the special feature of the author's inventions as distinguished from the ordinary methods of electrical engineering. Engines of different types, sizes, and rates of revolution can have their powers combined without interconnection of their electric circuits, and without risk of mistake or error. An oil-engine at 100 revolutions may be running the vessel at slow speed, and a steam-turbine running at twenty limes the speed may be jointly applied to the propellers without any complication of the electric equipment. Each unit does its own work independently.
The advantage of such an equipment in vessels which are required to operate under varying load conditions is evident. Without subdivision of the power units the whole of the main machinery must be in motion while the ship is in motion. At speeds reduced below its normal rate of revolution the steam-turbine is even less economical than the steam-engine. Subdivision into high-pressure, low-pressure and intermediate elements has been carried out in certain steam equipments, but this result in a somewhat complicated and inconvenient system of piping, because the steam has to be led from one part of the system to the other across the vessel. In the electric system each unit can be self contained, and disposed in the manner best suited to a convenient arrangement of the engine-room. The size of the individual units can be adjusted to suit the powers required at the different working speeds, or they may be duplicate.
A few examples of application of the system are here presented, together with a description of a small vessel built to demonstrate and illustrated the principles of operation and to provide experience in the use of tie plant. In all cases alternating 3-phase currents are used, and interlocking devices connect mechanically the main reversing switches with the existing switches, so that no change can take place in the connection while they are passing currents.
Description of the Turbo-Electric Steamship "Frieda." for America Owners.—This vessel has been specially designed for the transport of bulk freights between the Gulf of Mexico and New York City. The vessel is to be 300 feet long, and will carry a dead weight of approximately 500c tons, at a mean loaded speed of twelve knots at sea. The propelling machinery is aft, and consists of a turbo-electric outfit for 1500 kw. three-phase 50 cycles when running at 3000 revolutions per minute. The turbine is supplied with steam at a pressure of 200 pounds per square inch at the turbine stop-valve. This electric generating plant is arranged on foundations on a platform deck in the engine-room, and the condensing plant in the engine-room hold. The condenser is fitted with a vacuum augmenter, and is suitable for dealing with the full-load quantity of steam from the turbine. The vacuum obtained will be 28^-inches, with cooling water about 85 degrees Fahrenheit. This condensing plant consists of a vacuum condenser, three-throw air-pumps, and a centrifugal circulating pump with electric-motor drives. The current is led to a three-phase motor, which is keyed direct to the main propeller shaft, and is capable of developing 1900 brake horse-power at a speed of about 84 revolutions per minute. The steam is generated in two Scotch boilers with Howden's forced draft, and liquid-fuel burners. This installation costs and weighs less than the normal equipment. The coal saving is over 10 tons per day. The design of the ship itself presents many other novel features. This design was prepared by Messrs. John Reid & Co., 17 Battery Place, New York City.
Oil-Electric Tank-Barge for Canadian Service.—In this the system is applied to the propulsion of a 245-foot Canadian canal-type tank-barge for the Standard Oil Company of New York. The equipment consists of three separate units of Diesel non-reversible oil-engines, each capable of developing 200 shaft horse-power, each directly connected to an alternating-current generator. The currents from one or all of the units are led to the separate windings of a three-phase motor, keyed to the main propelling shaft, and operating a single slow-turning screw. The great advantage and economy of this system consists in being able to run at fu;; power or at one-third power using one or three engines at full-load economy at will, thus providing for an economical operation impossible with any other propulsive system. The fact that non-reversible oil-engines are used running under governor control greatly simplifies the maintenance and operation. The control is operated by a low-tension interlocking switch, operated by an ordinary engine-room telegraph-stand located in the pilot-house, so that the maneuvering of the vessel is at all times in the hands of the navigating officer. This equipment increases the cost of the ship about 10 per cent above the normal, but the carrying capacity is very largely increased.
Marine Turbo-Electric Installation Proposed for United States San Colliers.—A marine turbo-electric installation has been submitted to the United States Navy Department for adoption in one of the four large colliers recently given out to contract. The installation consists of a steam turbo-alternator of 5000 kw, with condensing plant; the current is led to two motors, one being keyed to each propeller shaft. The machinery is right aft in the vessel. The steam is generated by Scotch boilers. The vessels in which it is proposed to install this machinery are 525 feet long, and will carry a dead-weight of 12,500 tons of coal at a speed of 16 knots at sea. Here, again, the cost, weight, and economy are better than can be shown with the normal reciprocating-engine equipment.
In the course of a summary of the principal points involved in electrical propulsion, Mr. Hobart remarks that a study of the circumstances reveals a remarkable accordance of means and requirements. "It has come to be recognized that a very important advantage of the electric drive as applied to ship propulsion, relates to the independence which it provides between the prime movers and the propellers, for instance, a triple-screw ship no longer requires to have just three engines. Four engines, or two, or some other number, may be more suitable. If four engines are employed, while only one may be required to be in service at cruising speed, nevertheless each of the three propellers will be driven by its own electric motor or motors. Thus it may readily be arranged that whatever machinery is in operation shall be carrying its most economical load. Appreciation of the importance of this feature (which is exclusive to the electric drive and is not provided by any of the mechanical speed-reduction methods) has caused engineers to consider with increased interest the merits of the internal-combustion engine as a prime mover for ship propulsion, and it is seen (when employed in connection with the electric drive) to be a very promising alternative to the turbo-electric drive."
"It would appear that the addition of the electric drive will save the situation for the steam turbine, and also for the internal-combustion engine, so far as relates to their application to ship propulsion. In addition to the attributes already mentioned, the electric drive at once provides for astern running without any of the complications, difficulties, and expense otherwise encountered in connection with astern running when the prime movers are other than reciprocating steam engines. One of the most notable features of the electric drive relates to the greater precision afforded during stopping or quickly reversing or sharply altering the course of the ship. In these operations, no other means can approach the power and precision inherent to the electric drive."
Mr. Hobart further remarks that the British Admiralty stands alone in the adoption of the policy of equipping all battleships and cruisers with steam-turbines. "In the German Navy and in the American Navy, steam-turbines have been employed to only a very limited extent, and, so far as relates to battleships and cruisers, appear to be regarded as inherently inferior to the piston engine for the purposes of marine propulsion. The inclusion of the feature of the electric drive will eliminate from the steam turbine proposition the inherent disadvantages which otherwise attend its use, and, in large sizes, will place it in the same position of unchallenged superiority over the reciprocating steam engine which it already occupies in land practice."
"For constant speed operation, the mechanical methods which are now being successfully exploited by Westinghouse, Parsons and Fottinger, are admirable. But for astern running, the last mentioned alone shares with electrical systems the advantage of dispensing with the necessity of reversing the prime mover, and (in the case of steam turbines) of providing auxiliary prime movers. None of these three systems comprise any feature endowing them with any such perfection of control in maneuvering or in prompt stopping, as can be provided by the electrical method. Moreover, it should not be overlooked that all ships arc, on occasions, required, as when in crowded harbors and during foggy weather to proceed at other than their normal speed. The mechanical systems cannot approach the electrical system in the matter of economy at other than maximum speed, and the superiority of the electrical system is very considerable for ships which must frequently proceed at speeds much below their maximum speed. For strictly constant-speed ships, a good case can, however, be made out for the use of mechanical gearing, as it should usually show higher efficiency and lower first cost than the equivalent in electrical machinery. As already mentioned, however, the mechanical method is at a disadvantage in requiring auxiliary turbines for reversing, and in affording a less powerful and exact command of the boat in all maneuvering operations."
In the volume referred to will be found a very instructive account of the Melville-Macalpine Fottinger and other mechanical speed-reduction gearing, chapters on the use of superheated steam in marine engines, electrical gear as a means for improving the load factor, internal-combustion engines for ship propulsion, etc. The chief credit for recognizing, in its wide bearings, the load-factor advantages associated with the electrical propulsion is assigned by the author to Mr. Henry A. Mavor, who has for several years devoted a large amount of study and investigation to the application of electricity to ship propulsion. Mr. Mavor's proposals are examined in great detail together with those of Mr. William P. Durtnall, W. L. R. Emmet, and others, including the Mirrlees-Day system. It is essentially a work which should not be missed by anyone desirous of following up this important development of the practical side. Unless we are very much mistaken it is a work which marine engineers have been literally waiting for, and armed with the data now provided they should be enabled to return to the complicated problems involved with renewed ardor.—Pages Weekly.
Motor-Driven Warships.—Some time ago, when considerable discussion was going on regarding a supposed motor battleship which was "to appear shortly," but has not yet been heard of, we pointed out that it would be a departure from all precedent if the Admiralty installed an experimental set of marine engines in so large a vessel as a battleship: and that it was much more likely that we should have a motor-driven torpedo craft as an experimental ship. Our prophecy has turned out to be true for we now have it on good authority that Messrs. John I. Thorneycroft, of Southampton, are building a destroyer for the Admiralty which is to be driven by a Diesel oil engine, in lieu of cruising steam turbine As we mentioned in the United Service Gazette last week, a two-cycle Diesel engine of, it is said, 6000 horse-power is being made by Messrs Vickers for their Lordships, which is to be installed, for experimental purposes, in a twin-screw cruiser of the old type, displacing one of the steam engines and working side by side with the other. It is fitting that Messrs. Vickers should be given the larger job, since the success of the only motor-driven vessels of any size in the British war-fleet, the submarines, has been beyond question, and they have been built solely by this large company, aided during the late years by the Royal dockyard at Chatham. Vickers, by-the-way, are adding large administrative and other offices to their already huge premises, and the development of the marine motor is receiving close attention from this enterprising firm.—United Service Gazette.
The trend of engineering progress is shown from an exceedingly broad and withal unbiased viewpoint, in the recent report of the chief engineer of the British Engine, Boiler and Electrical Insurance Co. on breakdown'. of various types of machinery insured by them.
The commercial engineer presumably knows all about the weaknesses of his own designs, and to a certain extent he is cognizant of the failures of other designers in his own field, but there his information usually stops short. However, an insurance company being in a sense a disinterested party, in that he has no interest in the competition between designers, and on the other hand being the first party to be informed 01 failures in the apparatus covered by its policies, is in a peculiarly favorable position to obtain much information of great general interest to the engineering profession at large.
The above-mentioned report shows the marked progress in gas engine development. The statistics given indicate that out of every forty-five engines now insured, 20 are gas engines. The figures also show that 1 out of every 9.7 steam engines insured had some sort of failure during the year, while only 1 in 10.8 of the gas engines was similarly reported. These figures are, however, doubtless rather misleading, as the steam engines will in the majority of cases be shown to be considerably older than the gas engines and so a large number of the steam-engine breakdowns may be charged to worn out parts instead of faulty construction or defective material, which are the most fruitful causes of trouble in the gas engines. This is shown conclusively in the appended summary table in which the causes of trouble arc roughly classified:
? | Steam Engines
| Gas Engines
|
Accidents and other undetermined causes
| 37%
| 35%
|
Old defects, wear and tear, etc.
| 34%
| 29%
|
Weaknesses, bad workmanship, poor design or material
| 16%
| 19%
|
Negligence of owners or attendants
| 13%
| 17%
|
Commenting on the table above, the report says that while the proportion of failures to the whole number of engines insured is gradually decreasing, there is an increasing number of failures which are due to breakage of small parts, valves, gearing, etc., which seems to show are of two things: cither the larger, more important parts are being more carefully designed, strains being figured from theoretical considerations and the problems of design being more thoroughly analyzed instead of being decided by rule of thumb in comparison with the smaller parts, which are, more frequently than not, merely made to "look right;" or on the other hand, the general design may be changing in such a way as to make more small parts which are susceptible to failure in one manner or another. It is quite presumable that a combination of these two factors may be the real explanation of the change noted in the character of the failures recorded.
The number of boilers insured is gradually decreasing, due no doubt' in part to the increase in the number of gas engines, but also to the increase in size of units. Inasmuch, however, as a large proportion of the boilers insured are of low pressure types, the boiler information is of little interest to marine engineers.
The tendency toward the use of alternating current apparatus for shore work is shown by the increase in number of alternate current machines insured, which now number 14.5% of the total insured.
Two causes of trouble are especially mentioned and warned against —one is the practice of leaving exposed cable ends on uncompleted work, which may become grounded and throw heavy overloads on the machines. The other is the practice of coupling up the leads on enclosed or semi-enclosed apparatus with so-called dry joints, i.e., joints without solder. The insurance company finds that the resistance caused by such joints frequently overheats the wires and sets fire to the insulation, which of course very promptly causes much more serious trouble.
Notes on Oil Engines. Edited by G. J. M.—The oil engine in its present state of development is of several types. It has, however, been brought into prominence by the success of the Diesel engine, and consequently it is of interest to know why this type of engine has been successful.
The alteration of the design of the gasoline engine represents one type of the heavy oil engine. The alteration was made to utilize the crude oils, and the oils that are by-products of refining and that have no commercial use except as fuel, and consequently are comparatively cheap, ranging in price from two to five cents per gallon depending on the locality and transportation facilities.
The preparations of these heavier hydrocarbons for use in the engine consists essentially of vaporization and mixing. In one case, figure I. this is effected during the compression stroke. The oil is injected into an incandescent hood or chamber, which for starting is heated up externally by means of a lamp, and afterwards kept hot by the combustion of the mixture in it. During the compression stroke, air from the cylinder rushes through the contracted opening into this chamber and mixes with the vapors therein, until the end of the stroke, the right proportion of combustible to air is reached. The mixture is then ignited simply by direct contact with the hot walls of this vaporizing chamber, augmented slightly by the heat due to compression.
Another is shown in figure 2. The vaporizer chamber is provided with jacket space through which the exhaust gases pass, thus heating the vaporizer externally. A cloud of fuel vapor is produced by dropping the liquid fuel on the heated surfaces of the baffle plates inside the vaporizer. On the suction stroke of the piston, free air enters this vaporizer and in passing over the baffle plates, becomes heated and in the same time absorbs the oil vapors; the mixture thus formed and pre-heated then enters the cylinder and at the end of the compression stroke is ignited by the electric igniter.
A third case is shown in figure 3. The fuel oil is mixed with and broken up by a stream of compressed air of from 8-25 pounds pressure above the atmosphere, so that it enters the vaporizer chamber in the form of finely divided spray, and is immediately vaporized, due to the heat applied externally by the exhaust gas. The bulk of the air, being aspirated during the suction stroke, then mixes with the fuel vapor and becomes pre-heated, thus forming the explosive charge. Compression and ignition are the same as in figure 2.
These types of oil engines, especially those of figures 1 and 2, are quite simple and therefore cheap in first cost. Their method of vaporization, however, is rather crude and gives rise to objections well borne out by practical experience, which are the cause of the prevailing prejudice against such oil engines. The chief drawback to all these vaporizers is the practical impossibility of vaporizing the fuel completely at all loads and under all conditions. The heat of the chamber should always be high enough to vaporize all the oil, but never hot enough to decompose it, or a deposit of carbon will be formed in the vaporizer and cylinder, accompanied by incomplete combustion and therefore low efficiencies; this manifests itself by the objectionable smoke and odor of the exhaust gases. Another drawback is that in all engines of the type of figure 1, in order to obtain certainty of ignition and at the same time prevent pre-ignitions at different loads, the temperature of the vaporizer should vary with the load, a practical impossibility. The pre-heating of the mixture, as required for engines operating under the principles shown in figures 2 and 3, decreases the weight of the air aspirated, and therefore the capacity of the engine; while the throttling of the air in passing through the vaporizer chamber and passages, as well as the high back pressure due to the exhaust gases passing through the jacket space of the vaporizers, decreases the power output of such engines still more. The necessity of first heating the vaporizer externally by means of a lamp before the engine can be started is rather inconvenient as it takes at least five to ten minutes. The fuel consumption of these engines averages about 1 pound of oil per b. horse-power hour, corresponding to a thermal efficiency of not over IS per cent.
These three types cover in a general way the mechanical principles of some of the commercial liquid fuel engines today on the market. A great variety of modifications is possible, but they all have in common the fact that the fuel and air mixture after having being compressed, is instantaneously ignited; that is, at constant volume, and according to this mode of heat application they belong in the class of constant-volume engines. The degree of compression is limited with the thermodynamic cycle on account of the danger of premature ignitions due to the compression temperature, and hence the efficiency is limited. Without artificial means (which have been found to be impracticable) the safe limit of compression in the present constant-volume oil engines has by long experience been found to be about 60 pounds in kerosene engines, with spontaneous ignition. The efficiency of these types of engines is not likely therefore, to be increased in the near future beyond about 15 per cent. Considering this, as well as the undesirable features touched upon before, it is quite obvious that as far as reliability and economy of operation are concerned, these engines fall far short of what may be reasonably expected.
The Diesel type of engine was invented with a view to overcoming these difficulties. The inventor instead of constructing an engine and deducing a theory from it, laid down the working principles which might govern any improvement in the oil engine, and then proceeded to put them in practice. These principles may be stated as follows:
- Production of the highest temperature of the cycle, not by and during combustion, but entirely by mechanical compression of air.
- Gradual introduction of a small and well regulated quantity of finely divided combustible into the highly compressed and heated air, in such a way that no further increase of temperature takes place but all the heat generated is carried off by the expansion of the gases of combustion during the working stroke.
- Introduction of a large quantity of air in excess, instead of admitting only as much air as is required for the combustion of the fuel.
Many refinements and improvements have been made since the first engine was built. Instead of the single stage air compressor direct connected to the engine, such as was used in the first engines, the present practice is to use a separate two- or three-stage compressor either belted to the engine or driven by a motor. The first stage of the compressor delivers air at 75 to 150 pounds and this is stored in steel accumulators. The second or second and third stages compress the air to 900 to 1000 pounds and it is then stored in accumulators and used for spraying the fuel in the cylinder.
The operation of the present Diesel engine is as follows:
Air is drawn into the cylinder during the suction stroke, and com pressed during the compression stroke to 500 to 800 pounds per square inch. The temperature of this air due to compression is from 1000° to 1200° F. At the end of the compression stroke, the fuel is introduce] in the form of a spray by the combined action of the fuel pump and the high pressure air. The fuel does not explode, but burns, simply because of the heat of the compressed air, there being no other means of ignition Since the oil particles are burned immediately after their admixture with the air, there is no possibility of deposits forming on the cylinder wall and combustion is so complete that the exhaust products are entire!; smokeless and without odor. The fuel pump continues to introduce the fuel during one-tenth to one-eighth of the working stroke, with the result that the pressure in the cylinder during this part of the stroke is constant Hence the term constant-pressure engine applied to this type. Governing is obtained by regulating the amount of fuel fed into the cylinder by the oil pump. Numerous tests made on Diesel engines of different sizes show an average fuel consumption of less than 0.5 pound of oil per b. horse-power hour, corresponding to a thermal efficiency of about 30 per cent.
To the particular feature of compressing air alone to such a pressure and temperature that it will immediately vaporize and ignite the fuel injected into it, the constant-pressure engine as embodied in the Diesel type undoubtedly owes its success. It lends itself admirably to the utilization of liquid fuels, as it does away at once with carburetors or vaporizers and igniters; moreover it allows the burning of any liquid fuel without special accessories. Another point of equal importance is the fact that with decreasing loads the efficiency of the constant-pressure engine decreases but very little, while that of the constant-volume engine drops very rapidly with lighter loads.
In view of these points, therefore, there can hardly be any question that for the utilization of liquid fuels the constant-pressure engine is far superior to the constant-volume engine.
In a Diesel engine, figure 4 represents the period where a measured quantity of fuel, according to the load on the engine, is being deposited in space s of the injection valve cage c by the oil pump o, the injection valve n being closed at that moment. Space s is continuously in communication with the air storage tank t, into which the 2-stage air compressor a delivers the air required for fuel injection at a pressure of from "50 to 1000 pounds. (One or two additional tanks are automatically kept charged by the compressor with air of about the same pressure for starting the engine.) The oil must therefore be delivered into space s against this high pressure which, in view of the small quantity to be delivered, requires extremely accurate work and adjustments on the oil pump o. Since fuel and injection air come into contact with each other while injection valve n is still closed, that is, before the actual injection period, it is quite obvious that the valve cage c, as well as the injection air, must be well cooled in order to prevent dangerous premature ignitions or the formation of deposits due to partial evaporation of the deposited fuel.
Figure 5 shows the actual injection period, which starts as soon as injection valve n opens; the latter therefore controls simultaneously the admission of fuel and the injection of air into the cylinder. At all loads the points of opening and closing of the injection valve n remain unchanged, that is, the length of the period the injection valve is open is constant. Within this period a variable quantity of fuel, according to the load, is to be injected. In order to accomplish this most satisfactorily it has been found necessary to increase the pressure of the injection air with increasing loads on the engine, that is, with increasing amounts of fuel to be injected. This pressure increase is about 250 pounds from light to maximum load, no arrangement having so far been made whereby this pressure can be automatically controlled; this must be done by hand at the judgment of the engine operator.
Some of the variations of the constant-pressure type of engine are the Sabathe engine which is evidently an attempt to eliminate the rather inconvenient requirement of variable injection air pressures with varying loads; the De La Vergne engine which is a combination of the Diesel principle and the hot bulb type as shown in figure 1; the Trinkler-Korting engine; the Haselwander engine; the Atlas engine of the Diesel type; and the Covington engine of the same type.
Probably the latest of the Diesel type of engine is the Setz engine. The principle of air injection is as follows: the injection air is generated right in the engine at the moment the fuel injection is to take place. Figure 6 represents the injection period. The auxiliary piston t has just produced injection air of sufficiently high pressure to obtain the desired velocity through passage k, from whence it is directed into space s in such a way as to cause it to circle around its wall down towards nozzle m. At this moment pump o begins gradually to force the desired quantity of oil into space i at a velocity determined by the tension on spring g of valve n. The oil is therefore forced directly into the stream of injection air, the velocity of which is much higher than that of the oil. and the resulting abrupt acceleration of particle for particle of oil produces a complete spray at a minimum expenditure of energy. An important feature of this arrangement is the fact that valve 11 admits the fuel in the form of a very line, cone-shaped film, thus distributing it equally over the whole surface of the injection air blast. This introduction of the fuel continues until oil pump valve v which is under control of the governor, opens, when valve n will automatically return to its scat and close off the oil passage, or rather the oil contained therein, from all contact with air until the next injection period begins. The functions of valve n arc thus three-fold.
- To determine the velocity with which the oil is to enter space s.
- To distribute equally the oil introduced over the whole surface of the injection air stream.
- To prevent the possibility of air and oil coming in contact with each other except during the injection period.
It is evident that in this engine the duration of the injection period is determined by the oil pump o; provisions must therefore be made to start admission of the fuel under all loads at the same point, relatively, to the position of the main piston. This is accomplished by means of valve l, which always closes at a fixed point of the pump stroke when the delivery of oil begins and continues at a rate determined by the diameter and stroke of the plunger.
This engine is still in the experimental stage but promises to prove its practicability, and represents an engine of surprising simplicity.
Diesel Engines. Developments on the Continent. (From an Engineering Correspondent.)—It is rather difficult at the present time fur engineers and ship-owners to keep fully in touch with all that is being done on the Continent with regard to the development of Diesel engines. The large Continental firms possess an advantage of long experience which it will be almost impossible to wrest from them, but perhaps that is not so important, in taking a wider view of the general aspect of the question. as the lack of knowledge regarding immediate future events which are likely to exercise so great an effect upon all branches of the shipbuilding and engineering industry.
Taking first the subject of the application of the Diesel motor to battleships, in England it is largely a question of vague rumors as to what is being done abroad, and so much exaggerated and impossible news has been circulated as to render it difficult for those who understand the obstacles to be encountered to believe that any actual progress is being made. In reality the position is that at the Nuremberg works an engine of six cylinders, to develop 12,000 horse-power has been designed, the intention being to install it in a large German battleship—not a Russian one as has been stated. The engine has been designed so that each set of three cylinders is self-contained and forms a complete machine capable of working independently; the first set has been constructed and has during the past week or two been running in the shops. So far as can be shown by so short an experience, the results have been satisfactory, and the favorable fact has been deduced that with a six-cylinder engine, instead of the power developed being 12,000 horse-power, some 16,000 horse-power will be obtained with ease—i.e., over 2500 horse-power per cylinder. This engine is of the two-cycle double acting type of the usual Nuremberg construction. It is thus similar to those of 1500 horsepower and 1000 horse-power, which have been built for the Hamburg-America vessel and the Woermann liner.
To turn to another of the chief firms of Diesel engine manufacturers Messrs. Sulzer Brothers, of Winterthur, Switzerland, it is well known that in this case it has been definitely decided to adhere to the single-acting principle for all Diesel engines. In these works a two-cycle four-cylinder stationary engine of 2400 b. horse-power has completed its trials, while a single cylinder marine engine of 2000 horse-power is now being constructed, also single-acting; all the castings have been made and the engine is at present in course of erection. It will be an entirely independent reversible engine, and will represent the largest power in one cylinder which has yet been built to work on the single-acting principle.
After five years' work on the subject Messrs. Sulzer have now completed a locomotive which is driven by a Diesel engine, and trials are to be begun very shortly. Perhaps in no application of the Diesel motor are the difficulties encountered so great, or the possibilities of economy so high, as in its employment for driving locomotives, and the results of these trials will be watched with great interest.
As indicating the cosmopolitan view which the German Admiralty is taking with regard to the question of Diesel marine engines, it may be mentioned that several German naval engineers have been sent to Messrs. Sulzer's works with the object of gaining a thorough experience in the engines constructed by that firm.
MISCELLANEOUS.
Short Cut to the Pacific.—The steady growth of the fleet-unit for Australian waters which is to form the nucleus of a local navy for the commonwealth, and the progress of the work of making the Panama Canal, proceed side by side in such a way that it may easily happen that Australia will have her orders completed by British shipbuilders at a time that will synchronize with the opening of the Panama Canal to maritime traffic. That this artificial waterway will be used freely by our merchant ships and warships, goes without saying, and if it is to be neutral in time of war t will make it much easier for our Colonial fleets to join hands with he mother fleet, as well as facilitate reinforcements being sent to many parts of our empire which will then be much less remote in point of access from our shores, than at present. The Pacific will, in fact, be brought within reasonable touch with our home fleets, and Australians may well feel a greater security after the new waterway is opened. The difficulties in the making of this canal have been stupendous; but the tenacity of the American statesmen and engineers has surmounted all obstacles, and the end is now plainly in sight; they are to be congratulated on the way their modern De Lesseps, Colonel Goettral, has stuck to his task and placed the accomplishment of such a creditable performance beyond all reasonable doubt. In the old clays, a commission on the Pacific station often meant four, five or even six years in duration for British warships, owing to its remoteness. In three years' time the Panama Canal will be finished and the Pacific will be accessible in little more than a fortnight from England.—United Service Gazette.
The Generalship of Armed Millions.—The recent tension over Morocco has given rise to some extraordinary theorizing in military circles, regarding the employment of enormous masses of troops in the field. The trend of thought in Germany at the present moment is to throw the whole of the able-bodied male population into the field, as one huge fighting machine, and as, according to recent statistics, this would mean the handling of about 1,380,000 men, it is impossible to conceive such a force as acting under a one-brain impulse. We are of opinion that our own regular army, as at present constituted and controlled, would be quite able to act successfully against even so gigantic a force as the above, providing always that we have an ally as a containing factor in the military problem. Our strategists will make a great mistake if they follow, as they have so frequently and foolishly done in the past, all the wild-cat theorizing that emanates from the Continent. Far better that we should adhere closely to our own common-sense ideas, and thus retain what in the past has frequently been a pillar of strength to this country in times of great conflicts, than copy foreign methods that have so often proved disastrous. It is absurd to talk of armies of a million and a half, all engaging at one time§ over a frontage of some three or four hundred miles, and we are surprised that so much attention is being paid to these vaporings. It should he remembered that there are certain necessities which as food, ammunition, and medical arrangements, required for the maintaining such a force; but what is more pertinent, is the fact that any commander who followed on the strategy of Moltke, would, with ordinary care, be able to dismember such a huge army at several points at the same time, and thus render the colossus impotent.—United Service Gazette.
Aeroplanes in the French Maneuvers.—The France Militaire gives admission to an article concerning the use of aeroplanes in the maneuvers in Eastern France, which is calculated to bring the conception of the value of these craft into right proportions. The writer admits that the subject is delicate, but he asserts that imagination plays a considerable part in estimating the value of the aeroplanes. He knows that these craft have astonished us, and are likely to astonish us much more. There can be no doubt of the boldness and courage of the pilots, and too much can scarcely be asked from them. Their duties are great and important, and they have the high courage of enthusiasm. The aviators have captured the public imagination, but the young pilots must not be flattered into thinking that they can win battles, as the artillery used to think. The writer in the France Militaire has studied the services of the aeroplanes minutely, and says that, instead of asserting that they have won battles, it would be well to ask if and how they could assist to win them. The latter is the point that has to be considered in the future. Their object is to discover the situation of the enemy, but information is good and bad, the good being that which influences the decision of the chief. Cavalry officers have spent long years in learning how to gather this useful information, and yet they do not always possess the confidence of their chiefs. Is it to be imagined that the commander of an army or an army corps on the field of battle will accept with blind faith the information brought by an aviator. His personal responsibility is likely to forbid this. In maneuvers, operations are undertaken on the receipt of relatively doubtful information, but the same is not the case in war. In short, the critic thinks that aviators have yet to gain the confidence of their chiefs, and not to exaggerate their functions.—Army and Navy Gazette.
Contractors’ Claims.—It seldom happens that on public works carried out by contractors that the final accounts are agreed and settled up without any claims for extra payment under some head or other.
Claims may be made on account of alleged deviations from the contract during the progress of the work, or in respect of extra cost incurred by the contractors above that anticipated, due to alterations on the part of the engineer, or to difficulties and delays encountered which may or may not, have been beyond the control of the contractors. The form of contract and specification, if properly drawn, may, if strictly enforced, cover the employer's alleged liability, and place the whole onus on the contractors. Sometimes claims put forward by contractors are largely frivolous and vexatious, and are raised merely in the attempt to get as much out of the employers as possible. The contract may not have been remunerative, and an endeavor is made to finally come out on the right side, to a greater or less extent, by what can be got out of claims, often irrespective of the real merits of the case. There are contractors who from the start of work, make it a special business to raise or manufacture claims on every conceivable opportunity, whether these can or cannot be substantiated wholly or in part. As a rule contractors' claims may be classed generally as follows:
- Claims arising out of alleged alterations or non-fulfillment of the contract through no fault of the contractors.
- Claims on account of delays or difficulties beyond the contractors' control.
- Claims arising from alterations made as the work proceeds.
- Claims made in the attempt to cover losses due to the contractors' mismanagement, oversights, or bad luck.
- Indirect claims, or claims for consequential damages.
- Frivolous and vexatious claims.
- Petty claims.
Nearly all contracts give rise to some or all of the claims falling under the above heads. They may be further roughly sub-divided into:
- Claims which the resident engineer cannot settle, and which should obviously be left to the arbitrator.
- Claims the resident engineer should settle, if a reasonable settlement can be made.
- Claims which only the resident engineer can and should settle, and which ought never to be carried to a higher authority.
- Claims which ought never to have been made.
It is probable that under each division there may be items which ought to be withdrawn, which the contractors, if fair and reasonable, will readily withdraw. At the same time matters not infrequently arise in which the contractors are fairly entitled to some consideration which the resident engineer or immediately responsible official will not or cannot see. Some people are unable to see two sides of a question; some will haggle over pence and miss pounds.
A mistake often made on public works is the deferring of the settlement of many trivial matters, involving small sums of money, for months or even until the completion of the contract. Those on both sides of the fence are frequently equally to blame—neither side will budge. Of course, an important principle may be involved in a matter of small moment monetarily, and in this case it may be necessary and wise to delay settlement. A certain amount of the spirit of compromise over matters in dispute or differences of opinion arising during the progress of works is often equitable and needful. A delay in final settlement until the heat of argument has passed away may be judicious and wise.
Nevertheless the number of small and trivial matters held over until the end on many contracts becomes almost an absurdity. Contractors with an undue appetite for claims are inclined to prefer delay in order thereby to confuse the issue and so hope for an advantage. Moreover, time is a great softener, and by long delay many small matters which assumed comparatively great importance cease to do so, and thereby this class of contractor may obtain eventually what he is not really entitled to. These matters should, as far as possible, be settled up as the work proceeds, full particulars being kept of all items not agreed or withdrawn, so that the lapse of time shall not militate unfairly against either party.
On questions of fact no doubt can arise if the engineer's and contractors' representatives know and attend to their business. It is a good plan when a claim arises, or is likely to be made, for both sides to agree upon the facts and on the work done in those cases which are deferred or left to higher authority, so that when the principle involved is decided, there can be no doubt as to the basis of settlement or the amount fairly at stake.
To carry out work well, confidence in each other on the part of the resident engineer and contractors' representatives is essential. Neither should be seeking an advantage over the other. The contractors are, of course, there to make money, but to do so squarely and honestly under the contract. The engineer is there to watch the interests of the employers, to see fair play, to get fair work for fair payment under the contract and specification, and to render all reasonable assistance to achieve the speedy and satisfactory completion of the work.
A specification properly written endows the engineer with great powers. It is intended to give him the whip hand if required, and it sometimes is required. On the other hand, specifications are usually meant to be applied with reason and judgment, not losing sight of the principles of equity between decent and honorable men.
Day work is a fruitful source of dispute between engineers and contractors. In the hands of some contractors, it is not putting it too strongly to say that day work amounts to daylight robbery. This method of working should not be adopted unless circumstances render it unavoidable. It not infrequently happens that work has to be done for which no item appears in the schedule, or to which no schedule item can be fairly applied. Whenever possible, prices should be agreed upon between the engineer and the contractors. If the resident is a confident and strong man, this course can usually be adopted. As a rule, a resident is not empowered to alter a schedule rate, but he can, if in the position and exercising the authority which ought to be his, make a new price, within limits, to meet particular circumstances not previously provided for. The contractors may decline to accept a price which the resident knows is a fair one and hold out for a too high a rate, or press the alternative of day work. The latter course is often pressed, but if the resident engineer is satisfied the work can be fairly done without recourse to day work, he may decline to allow it, and pay a price on account, leaving the final settlement until later. In this case he would naturally take care that the payment on account was not too high.
Some resident engineers are very loath to settle prices, readily taking refuge in day work. It is perhaps less trouble, and by doing the work on the basis of time and material, he imagines he is getting rid of responsibility. The clerks of works or others can be instructed to return the time, and as long as there is a return, showing so many men so many hours, it matters little what the work is costing. The resident certifies for it, and takes refuge in the returns. It is common knowledge that when work is done and supervised, as a good deal is, in this manner the cost is often higher than it should be, and a longer time taken to complete it. A resident engineer who acts in this way is either partially ignorant or inefficient.
There are many causes which militate towards unnecessary cost in the execution of public works. It is sufficient to say here that one reason which tends towards the line of least resistance is that it sometimes happens the final accounts are subject in full detail to the review and scrutiny, as to prices and everything else, of an accountant's staff. These persons are very competent accountants, qua accountants, but are not engineers, and know nothing of the value of the work. It is as easy as A, B, C for a man who knows his way about to drive a coach-and-four through these people. Consequently, if a price is arranged, not being in the schedule, long, tedious and irritating explanations are asked for. Whereas, so long as hours, men and material appear in the accounts, the money checks out at schedule rates, and nobody asks why a job has cost 300l. which might, and probably ought to, have been done for 200l. Moreover, it sometimes happens that a certain sum has been sanctioned by a committee, and if the money be not spent, it is almost as awkward, in a sense, as having to ask the committee for an extra sum. If this happens, the resident may get a little more credit with his head office for saving than he loses if increased expenditure is incurred. Either the system or the committees are to blame for this. In any case, the tendency is opposed to economy.
A source of trouble with contractors' claims lies in the fact that even where a bona fide claim exists the amounts at first asked by so many contractors are nearly always considerably in excess of anything that can be reasonably substantiated. In fact, the total is a good deal higher than is expected or hoped will be allowed. It is made up in order to hear substantial reduction. Unfortunately, human nature is largely responsible for this mode of doing business, which is to be deprecated. Swollen claims become a part of the stock-in-trade of claim-seeking contractors. They wish to obtain all that is possible, not much minding how they get it. On the other hand, engineers are in some measure responsible for this custom, so frequently resorted to, of making up outrageous claims.
The idea fixed in the minds of many engineers (we do not refer to those acting in the capacity of arbitrators) is that contractors' claims, whatever the amounts and whatever the argument upon which they are based, must be substantially reduced. The merits of the case are lost sight of so long as a settlement can be reached at a figure well below the original claim. The engineer is anxious for a good reduction, and the smaller the proportion of the amount claimed for which he can settle the better he is pleased. Contractors know this. They soon learn to know the man they have to deal with, and make up their claims accordingly. At the same time, everybody knows many engineers who possess the faculty of distinguishing reasonable claims and settling matters fairly on their merits, having, of course, due regard to contracts and specifications. With such men it generally is to the contractors' advantage to confine claims to reasonable proportions, which can be substantiated both in principle and amount, rather than to ask for 200l. and be quite ready when pressed to accept, say, 75/., or nothing at all.—Engineering.
The Navy and Science. Admiral Sir A. Moore's Reminder.—At the concluding meeting of the British Association at Portsmouth, the thanks of the association were extended to the mayor and corporation, and to the commander-in-chief (Admiral Sir A. Moore). The vote of thanks to the commander-in-chief was proposed by Sir William White, who said the members of the association had found even more than they had anticipated to interest and instruct them.
Admiral Sir A. Moore, in reply, said the navy was very glad to have had the opportunity of entertaining the thinking men, the men of science, for they profited so much from their researches. Men of science provided them in war time with facilities for quick destruction. They read a great deal about Dreadnoughts, and they had seen some of the submarine and torpedo-boats in actual working order. The material was, of course, very important, but at the same time, what was of far greater importance was the men who had to man the ships. They might design and build the most efficient vessels, but what good were they if they had not good men to man and make the most of them? Here, he feared, we were tending to fall into error. Certainly we lived in days of science, and we must keep apace with the latest discoveries, but we must never forget that when the day of battle came they depended mostly upon the men. They must not think that beginning and the end of the training of the officer was the knowledge of scientific machinery, but the development of the characteristics required in time of war, and he felt rather strongly that we were perhaps somewhat apt to ignore that undoubted fact.—Naval and Military Record.
It has been repeatedly urged that America should be kept out of calculations of the two-power standard. In the first place the inclusion of the American fleet would be politically unwise, and secondly, there is every reason to anticipate that for some years to come ship construction on the other side of the Atlantic will be limited. In the article which' he has just contributed to The Atlantic Monthly upon the present position and prospects of American naval power, Sir William White adopted this attitude towards the effort to drag America into our naval discussions. Sir William White made no comparison between the British and American navies, and he explained he had taken this course advisedly because he was one of those, happily a large and ever increasing number in both countries, who regard the question of war between the great English speaking peoples as lying beyond the region of probability and therefore requiring no discussion. As Sir William White pointed out, the recent satisfactory settlement at The Hague of the only important differences which existed between the two countries emphasizes this belief. Both countries share the desire for the maintenance of an "open ocean," across which commerce and communications can proceed in safety; of an "open door" for the entry of their manufactures into the great markets of China; and their supreme interest is centered in the maintenance of the peace of the world. By united action it lies in their power to insure the continuance of peace to an extent which is possible to no other combination of powers, and they wish to attain that desirable result without injury to the interests of other nations. In these circumstances the late director of naval construction, who for so many years has been in intimate touch with the American naval authorities, gave it as his deliberate opinion that it was not only undesirable, but useless, to make comparisons of the relative naval strength of Great Britain and the United States.—Naval and Military Record.
Rear-Admiral N.C. Twining, U. S. Navy.—The attention of the Bureau of Ordnance, Navy Department, has been drawn to a statement made by Dr. Charles E. Munroe in a paper read before the International Congress of Applied Chemists, in London, 1909, to the effect that provision had been made to rework U. S. navy smokeless powder every three years. This statement has tended to create an erroneous impression, particularly abroad, and to cast an exaggerated and unwarranted suspicion on American powder, which it is desired to correct.
To understand the situation clearly, it is necessary to state that smokeless powder for the U. S. army and navy is made under government specifications prepared by a Joint Board of Arm and Navy Officers from results obtained after years of experimentation and exhaustive tests by ordnance and chemical experts. Every effort has been made to improve the process of manufacture and the bureau can state positively that the powder as now manufactured will, under normal conditions of storage, enjoy a life of from twelve to fifteen years, and possibly longer.
The bureau now has powder in service which is from seven to twelve years old and which is still in excellent condition as to stability; this powder was manufactured before certain improvements in the process of manufacture now in vogue were adopted; these improvements render certain a longer life of powder into the manufacture of which they have been introduced.
The bureau has established a reworking plant for the purpose of reworking such powder as may prove unsatisfactory; by the use of this process powder which it is necessary to condemn for any reason can be made over into new powder of the best quality at a small cost instead of being a total loss.
At about the time Dr. Munroe was preparing the paper above mentioned the bureau made marked improvements in the process of manufacture of smokeless powder by the introduction of a stabilizer. This has been acknowledged by Dr. Munroe as will be seen from the following copy of his letter on October 6, 1911, to Mr. H. F. Brown of the Du Pont Powder Company, which is published by the kind permission of Mr. Brown and Dr. Munroe:
Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, Washington and New York, September, 1912.
October 6, 1911.
Mr. H. F. Brown, Director Smokeless Powder Department, E. I. DuPont de Nemours Powder Company., Wilmington, Del.
Dear Sir: Replying to your inquiry regarding the statement made in ray London paper in 1900, viz. "To insure stability, provision is made for reworking the powder every three years" I state that such frequent reworking of the powder has not been found necessary even with the older form of powder and that moreover, while my paper was being published, such improvements were made in the manufacture and stabilization of the U. S. powder referred to as to greatly improve its keeping qualities. The experience of the users of this powder and the results of the tests made indicate that the powder as it is now and has been made for some years will enjoy a life of from twelve to fifteen years and probably longer.
Yours very truly,
(Sd.) Charles E. Munroe.
The Hydro-Aeroplane for the Navy.—The success of Lieuts. T. Gordon Ellyson and John G. Towers in flying in a hydro-aeroplane down Chesapeake Bay from Annapolis to Buckroe Beach, Va., a distance of 145 miles, in 147 minutes, will justify Secretary Meyer in asking Congress in December for a liberal appropriation to equip the navy with airships of the amphibious class.
When the Secretary wrote his report a year ago, Mr. Eugene Ely had recently (on November 14) made a flight in a Curtiss biplane from a temporary platform on the forward deck of the scout cruiser Birmingham, and Mr. Meyer said in his report.
"The Department contemplates further experiments along these lines, with the belief that it will be necessary in the near future to equip all scouts with one or more aeroplanes to increase the distance at which information can be secured."
A hydro-aeroplane is an aeroplane fitted with attachments to facilitate the starting of the airship from the surface of water and its alighting on the same element. A Frenchman, M. Henri Fabre, was the pioneer of amphibious locomotion, making the first flight at Martinique on March 20, 1910. Mr. Glenn Curtiss had begun to experiment on Lake Keuka the previous year, but it was not until January 26-27, 1911, that in San Diego Bay he rose from the water, and after taking his course through the air settled down again on the surface of the bay with the ease of a gull. His hydro-aeroplane developed a speed of forty-five miles an hour on top of the water, and in the air it traveled fifty miles an hour.
On February 27 Mr. Curtiss flew from North Island to the side of the cruiser Pennsylvania, and the airship was drawn up from the water and placed on the forward deck, as if it were an auxiliary for scouting purposes. A week later Lieut. T. Gordon Ellyson was taken up with the aviator for a flight of one and a half miles at a speed varying from twenty-five to fifty miles an hour, Lieutenant Ellyson sitting on the pontoon rigged below the aviator's seat. From this position Lieutenant Ellyson could see bottom at a depth of twenty-five feet, and he afterward said that in clear water it would be possible to see from the hydro-aeroplane a submarine traveling under the surface. It was also the lieutenant's opinion that when the airship was moving at the comparatively slow speed of twenty-five miles an hour bombs could be dropped with precision from the pontoon.
Mr. Curtiss began his experiments at San Diego by attaching to his lower plane, at about the center, a float six by five feet and one foot thick, arranged at an angle of ten or twelve degrees. In front of this, about the place of the wheel in a land machine, he attached another float six feet wide, one foot from front to rear and six inches in depth, and ahead of that float he fixed a small elevating hydro-plane. He found the combination too cumbrous and substituted a single float twelve feet long by two wide with a depth of twelve inches, resembling a scow, curved upward at the bow and downward at the stern. The weight was only fifty pounds. Thus equipped the aeroplane ran over the surface of the water with hardly any disturbance and rose into the air quickly and smoothly.
As Lieutenant Ellyson became Mr. Curtiss's pupil the presumption is that the hydro-aeroplane used on Chesapeake Bay had the equipment which we have described. In one account of this remarkable flight by two men on land and water, which has never been equaled, it is said that near Buckroe Beach "the engine was stopped and the big hydro-aeroplane was allowed to settle on the water," and that then "the gear was changed to the propeller shaft and the machine was run ashore." Apparently enough speed was attained to drive her up on the sands. It is to be noted that a strong east wind prevailed during the trip along the west shore of Chesapeake Bay, and that the machine was sometimes flying seventy miles an hour.
It is obvious that the hydro-aeroplane could not take to the water when any kind of a sea was running. In the present stage of development it is a craft for use on inland waters or on bays when the surface water is not rough. Nevertheless, the value of the hydro-aeroplane as an auxiliary to naval vessels for reconnaissance and for conveying despatches, and for light transportation both in peace and war, cannot be seriously disputed. Its employment for damaging or destroying an enemy's ship with explosives may still be debatable.—New York Sun.