SHIPS OF WAR, BUDGETS, AND PERSONNEL.
AUSTRIA. VESSELS BUILDING.
Name. | Displacement. | Where Building. | Remarks. |
Battleships |
|
|
|
Erzherzog Ferdinand-Max | 10,600 | Trieste. | Under trial. |
Ersatz Tegetthof. | 14,500 | -- | Projected. |
Ersatz Kr.-Rudolf. | 14,500 | -- | “ |
Ersatz Kr.-Stephanie. | 14,500 | -- | “ |
Scouts. |
|
|
|
Ersatz Zara. | 3,500 | -- | Projected. |
The Ferdinand-Max, in her preliminary speed trials, made 19.57 knots mean speed with 34,390 horsepower. The other two ships of this class, Erzherzog Karl and Friedrich made 20.36 and 20.56 knots with 17,986 and 18,130 horsepower respectively.—Le Yacht.
The Austro-Hungarian government have contracted with Messrs. Yarrow & Co., of Poplar and Glasgow, for the construction of two exceptionally high-speed shallow-draft gun-boats, propelled by internal combustion engines. These vessels are to be in all essential particulars similar to Mercury II, which was purchased by the British Admiralty last year.
Two Austrian submarines have been ordered in Germany. They will be of the same general type as U, but larger, as the displacement is about 300 tons. The horsepower will be 300, and the surface speed from 32 to 13 knots.—Engineer.
Two submarines of Holland type have been ordered from Vickers' Sons & Maxim, and two of Lake type are to be built in an Austrian port.—Le Yacht.
BRAZIL.
The battleship being built by Vickers' Sons & Maxim for Brazil will be named the San Paulo.
The torpedo-boat Goyas, just completed by Messrs. Yarrow & Co. for the Brazilian Government, left Gravesend on September 4, for Brazil. The vessel is 152 feet 6 inches long, by 15 feet 3 inches beam, has a speed of 26 1/2 knots and is propelled by turbines combined with a small triple expansion reciprocating engine, the latter being used for cruising on ac- count of its superior economy at slow speeds. The Govas carries two 47-mm. quick-firing guns, and two 18-inch torpedo tubes. Her hull is of the Yarrow standard type for first-class torpedo-boats, being in all respects similar to 26 others that have been built for the Chilian, Austro-Hungarian, Japanese and Dutch Governments, and to 20 others being built by Austro-Hungary.
FRANCE.
VESSELS BUILDING.
Name. | Displacement. | Where Building. | Remarks. |
Battleships |
|
|
|
Democratie. | 14,865 | Brest. | Under trial. |
Justice. | 14,865 | La Seyne. | “ “ |
Verite. | 14,865 | Bordeaux. | Launched May 28, 1907. |
Liberte. | 14,865 | St. Nazaire. | Launched April 19, 1905. |
Danton. | 18,350 | Brest. | Ordered. |
Mirabeau. | 18,350 | Lorient. | “ |
Voltaire. | 18,350 | Bordeaux. | “ |
Dederot. | 18,350 | St. Nazaire. | “ |
Condoreet. | 18,350 | “ | “ |
Vergniaud. | 18,350 | La Seyne. | “ |
Armored Cruisers. |
|
|
|
Ernest Renan. | 13,644 | St. Nazaire. | Launched April 9, 1906. |
Jules Michelet. | 12,550 | Lorient. | “ Aug. 31, 1905. |
Edgard Quinet. | 13,644 | Brest. | Launched Sept. 7, 1907. |
Waldeck-Rousseau. | 13,644 | Lorient. | “ |
THE VERITE.—The Societe Anonyme des Chantiers et Ateliers de la Gironde, La Bastide-Bordeaux, launched in the presence of the Minister of Marine, on May 28, the battleship Verite, the principal dimensions of which are:
Length between perpendiculars 133.8 m. (439 ft.)
Main breadth 24.25 “ (79 ft. 6 in.)
Depth amidships 12.55 “ (41 ft.)
Draft:
Forward 7.98 “ (26 ft. 2 in.)
Amidships 8.20 “ (26 “ 11 “)
Aft 8.42 “ (27 “ 7 “)
Area of amid ship section 179.75 sq. m. (1932 sq. ft.)
Displacement 14,870 tons.
The sister-ships of the Virile are the Democratie, the Justice, and the Liberte The four ships were included in the French Navy program for 7900; they were put down in 1902, but their construction was suspended during several months, under the Pelletan Ministry, with a view to cut down expenses, and to devote all available funds and the all the industrial facilities of the nation to the construction of smaller craft and submarine boats. The submarine craze is, therefore, largely responsible for the time taken in placing the four above-mentioned units on the list of ships available for active service.
The eruzinec of the Verite, built by Messrs. Schneider & Co., at their Creusot Works, are vertical, three-cylinder compound, three in number, each driving a propeller. They are mounted in three compartments, separated from each other by longitudinal water-tight bulkheads. They develop, including the accessory engines and feed-pumps, a total of 18,000 horsepower at 110 revolutions. Steam distribution is by Stephenson link motion and cylindrical valves:
Diameter of high-pressure cylinder 0.860 m. (33 13/16 in.)
Diameter of intermediate cylinder 1.240 " (49 in.)
Diameter of low-pressure cylinder 1.920 " (76 " )
Stroke 1.150 " (45 1/4 in.)
The boilers are of the Belleville type, and are 22 in number, their principal characteristics being:
Pressure 21 atm. (308 lb. p. sq. in.)
Number of stoke holds 5
Total grate area 127 sq. m (1,365 sq. ft.)
Total wetted heating surface 3600 “ (38,700 “)
The three propellers are four-bladed; the central and starboard propellers are left-handed, and the port one is right-handed. The central propeller is 4.8 meters (15 ft. 9 in.) in diameter, and the two lateral ones 5 meters (16 ft. 5 in.). The contract speed for the ship is 18 knots.
Her armament is to consist of four 305-millimeter (12-inch) guns, mounted in two turrets on the center line of the ship, one forward and one aft; ten 194-millimeter (7.63-inch) guns, six of which are mounted in six turrets for broadside firing, and four in four "blockhaus"; thirteen 65- millimeter (2.56-inch) quick-firing guns distributed over the 'tween deck; and ten 47-millimeter (1.85-inch) quick-firing guns on the bridges and in the fighting tops. There are, besides, two submarine torpedo-launching tubes for 450-millimeter (17.71-inch) torpedoes. The armament will include also six automobile and twenty automatic mechanical torpedoes.
She is protected by belt armor 280 millimeters (11 inches) thick at the center, tapering down to 180 millimeters (7 inches) at both ends of the ship; also by an upper deck of special steel 54 millimeters (2 1/8 inches) thick, and by a lower deck, the horizontal plates of which are 51 millimeters (2 inches) thick, and those on the slant 70 millimeters (29.4 inches). The armor of the rotating turrets for the 305-millimeter (12-inch) guns is 280 millimeters (11 inches) thick, the 194-millimeter (7.63-inch) guns are protected by plates 200 millimeters (7.87 inches) in thickness; the “blockhaus" plates are 300 millimeters (11.81 inches) thick—Engineering.
The launching of the Verite at Bordeaux was something of an event in naval annals. She had all her boilers and machinery on board, all three funnels up, the lower parts of both masts, most of her armor in position, including the big gun turrets minus the guns, and the secondary turrets with the guns installed. The launching weight was close upon 12,000 tons-that is, within 3000 tons of the total displacement—and we believe this constitutes a record. She was launched from a slip, not floated out of a dry dock.—Engineering.
All three cruisers of the Gambetta class have now done their "reliability trials." The results are as follows: Victor Hugo, 96 hours—average, 19.5 knots; Jules Ferry, 72 hours—average, 20 knots; Leon Gambetta, 24 hours—average, 19 knots. At the end of 24 hours the Gambetta did a couple of hours at full speed, and made 22 knots.
The Jules Michelet, the last of the Gambetta class, is) nearly ready for trial. She differs from her sisters in having four 16.5-cm. guns less than they.—Engineer.
The French battleship Patrie recently burned her funnels out. According to the semi-official Moniteur de la Flotte, Messrs. Niclausse will have to pay for this. Were a similar rule enforced in this country, some boiler-makers would find Admiralty contracts far from profitable, as funnels burned out more or less are by no means uncommon now-a-days after hard steaming bouts.—Engineer.
Le Yacht states that the displacement of the Waldeck-Rousseau will be 14,300 tons; her horsepower, 40,000; speed, 24 knots, and battery, fourteen 194 cm. (10 in turrets with 8-inch armor and 4 in casemates with 4.7-inch armor) and twenty 6.5-cm. guns.
The Democratie on her full-power trial at 18,000 horsepower worked up as high as 19,190 indicated horsepower, and reached a speed of 19.4 knots. The 24 hours' trial at 10,50o horsepower resulted in a mean of 11,472 indicated horsepower, and a mean speed of 17.35 knots. The Democratie is fitted with the new type of Bellevilles, with the economisers low down instead of up in the funnels.—Engineer.
On the completion of the maneuvers the ships of the French fleet began to execute the recent ministerial orders looking to the redisposition and renewal of their powder. When this work is finished, early in September, the great majority of the powders afloat will be A. M. and the oldest indices will date from 1902. Moreover a long step will have been taken towards the unification of lots.
The new series of large submersibles, hitherto designated Q51, Q52, etc., are to be named after the months of the revolutionary calendar— Fluviose, Ventose, Germinal, Floreal, Prairial, Messidor, Thermidor, Fructidor, Vendemiaire, Brumaire, Frimaire, and Nivose. This series goes from Q51 to Q63 inclusive, excepting Q6I which is a very small boat which has not been completed.—Le Yacht.
The Cherbourg correspondent of the Yacht refers to the launching of the submarine Rubis, which is of the Emeraude type designed by M. Maugas, and displaces 400 tons, with a length of 154 feet 3 inches, and of the Q5/ on the same day, June 27. The latter boat belongs to a series of six, Q51 to Q 56,450 tons, 167 feet 5 inches, designed by M. Laubeuf. According to the correspondent, these boats will have four torpedo tubes, but in a table added by M. Laubeuf to his paper on submarines read before the Naval Architects' Congress at Bordeaux, he shows a bow tube and six discharges on the broad sides. There is probably an error here, because in his paper M. Laubeuf remarked upon the danger of bow tubes, and said that if the Bonite had had such a tube when she came into collision with the Suffren February 5, 1906, she would have been destroyed. The correspondent of the Yacht remarks that, with the two new types of vessels, comparative trials will take place, which will be more interesting than those between the Aigrette (M. Laubeuf) and the "Z" (M. Maugas), where in the former boat was the more successful. The submarines have lately been in difficulties, though without serious injury. The Sirene was in collision with the Henry IV, the Francais with the yacht Velox, and the Morse and Algerien with other vessels.—Army & Navy Gazette.
MOTOR TORPEDO-BOAT.—European naval experts are greatly interested in a small motor torpedo-boat displacing eight tons only, which has been built for the French navy for experimental purposes. This little craft has been constructed at the Petit Quevilly, near Rouen, and ascended the Seine at a speed of 14 knots. Her upper works are of steel, and include water-tight compartments for safety. The whole boat is constructed of thin steel, and has a motor of the Cazes type, developing 170 horsepower with 900 revolutions and 150 horsepower with 800 revolutions. The motor drives a reversible screw as well as the auxiliary machinery. The boat attained a speed at her trials of 16.3 knots. She has a torpedo tube in the bow, and it is said that she can be navigated and worked by two men. She is 52 feet 5 inches long, 8 feet 9 inches beam, and 3 feet extreme draft.— Nautical Gazette.
GERMANY.
VESSELS BUILDING.
Name. | Displacement. | Where Building. | Remarks. |
Battleships |
|
|
|
Pommern. | 13,200 | Stettin. | Under trial. |
Hannover. | 13,200 | Danzig. (Schichau Works.) | “ “ |
Schleswig-Holstein. | 13,200 | Kiel. | Launched Dec. 17, 1906. |
Schlesien. | 13,200 | Danzig. | “ May 28, 1906. |
Ersatz Bayern. | 19,000 | Wilhelmshaven. | Building. |
“ Sachsen | 19,000 | Bremen. | “ |
“ Wurtemberg. | 19,000 | Stettin. (Vulcan Works.) | “ |
Ersatz Baden. | 19,000 | Kiel. (Germania Works.) | Building. |
Armored Cruisers. |
|
|
|
Gneisenau. | 11,600 | Bremen. | Launched June 14, 1906. |
Scharnhorst. | 11,600 | Hamburg. | Under trial. |
E. | 15,00 | Kiel. | Building. |
F. | 18,000? | Bremen. | “ |
Protected Cruisers. |
|
|
|
Stuttgart. | 3,420 | Danzig. | Launched Sept. 22, 1906. |
Stettin. | 3,420 | Stettin. | “ March 7, 1907. |
Nurnberg. | 3,420 | Kiel. | “ Aug. 28, 1906. |
Ersatz Pfeil. | 3,500 | Danzig. | Building. |
“ Komet. | 3,500 | Hamburg. | “ |
“ Greif. | 3,500? | -- | Authorized. |
“ Jagd. | 3,500? | -- | “ |
THE NEW CRUISERS-The armored cruiser F is to cost 36,500,000 marks as against 27,500,000 marks for E. The cruisers Ersatz Grief and Jagd are also to be larger and more costly than their predecessors. It is believed to be finally settled that all the new cruisers as well as the new battleships will be fitted with turbines.
THE ESTIMATES FOR 1907.-The estimates for 1907 amount to 278,528,891 marks (£13,926,444 11s.), as against 253,456,685 marks (£12,672,384 5s.) voted for 1906, showing an increase of 25,072,206 marks (£1,253,610 6s.). The following are the principal items:
Ordinary Permanent Estimates.
| Proposed for 1907. | Proposed for 1906. | ||
| £ | s. | £ | s. |
Imperial Ministry of Marine and Naval Cabinet. | 94,927 | 0 | 89,660 | 10 |
Naval headquarter staff. | 15,466 | 15 | 16,603 | 0 |
Observatories, etc. | 18,326 | 14 | 17,819 | 4 |
Station Accounts Department. | 30,897 | 18 | 28,945 | 0 |
Legal Department. | 8,516 | 0 | 8,440 | 0 |
Chaplains' Department and Garrison Schools. | 6,990 | 15 | 6,753 | 16 |
Pay of officers and men. | 1,451,533 | 15 | 1,350,904 | 12 |
Maintenance of fleet in commission. | 1,559,858 | 0 | 1,431,523 | 0 |
Allowances for officers and men. | 108,818 | 14 | 103,265 | 4 |
Clothing. | 22,014 | 3 | 20,617 | 18 |
Barrack and garrison administration, etc. | 48,119 | 10 | 74,662 | 15 |
Barrack and garrison construction. | 33,466 | 14 | … | … |
Lodging allowance. | 127,852 | 17 | 119,518 | 0 |
Medical Department. | 115,886 | 18 | 105,592 | 17 |
Travelling, transport, and freight charges. | 170,550 | 0 | 172,300 | 0 |
Training establishments. | 24,627 | 17 | 20,249 | 17 |
Maintenance of fleet and dockyards. | 1,478,923 | 10 | 1,403,135 | 14 |
Ordnance, arms, and fortification. | 559,684 | 18 | 515,942 | 8 |
Accountant-General's Department. | 46,033 | 7 | 43,664 | 10 |
Pilotage and surveying. | 36,549 | 0 | 35,464 | 16 |
Miscellaneous expenses | 18,069 | 1 | 74,944 | 5 |
Administration of Kiau-Chau protectorate | 5,195 | 15 | 5,107 | 7 |
Total | 6,042,309 | 1 | 5,645,114 | 3 |
Special Ordinary Estimates. Shipbuilding Program for 1907.
For the construction of the following ships:
| £ | s. |
The first-class battleship Pommern (O), 4th and final vote | 117,500 | 0 |
“ “ “ “ Hannover (P), “ “ “ “ | 117,500 | 0 |
The first-class battleship Q, 3d vote | 232,500 | 0 |
“ “ “ “ Schlesien (R), 3d vote | 232,500 | 0 |
“ “ “ “ Ersatz Bayern, 2d vote | 430,000 | 0 |
“ “ “ “ Ersatz Sachsen, 2d vote | 430,000 | 0 |
The first-class armored cruiser Gneisenau (C), 4th and final vote | 75,000 | 0 |
“ “ “ “ “ Scharnhorst, 3d vote | 213,500 | 0 |
“ “ “ “ “ E, 2d vote | 300,000 | 0 |
For the construction of: |
| 0 |
The third-class cruiser Stuttgart (O), 3d and final vote | 54,500 | 0 |
“ “ “ Ersatz Wacht, 3d and final vote | 54,500 | 0 |
“ “ “ Nurnberg, 3d and final vote | 54,500 | 0 |
“ “ “ Ersatz Pfeil, 2,1 vote | 121,500 | 0 |
“ “ “ Ersatz Comet, 2d vote | 121,500 | 0 |
Mine-ship B, 2d and last vote | 50,000 | 0 |
A flotilla of torpedo-boats, 2d and last vote | 320,000 | 0 |
One flotilla of torpedo-boats, 1st vote | 400,000 | 0 |
Tender Ersatz Ulan | 25,000 | 0 |
Battleship Ersatz Wurttemberg, 1st Vote | 150,000 | 0 |
“ Ersatz Baden, 1st vote | 150,000 | 0 |
First-class cruiser F, list vote | 150,000 | 0 |
Third-class cruiser Ersatz Greif | 75,000 | 0 |
" “ Ersatz Jagd | 75,000 | 0 |
Fitting up battleship Kanig Wilhelm as a volunteer drill ship, 1st vote | 20,000 | 0 |
Construction of sailing yacht Ersatz Willie | 1,500 | 0 |
Repairs and alterations to first-class battleship Hansa, 1st vote | 37,500 | 0 |
Improvements to the first-class armored cruisers Hertha and Victoria Louise, 2d and last vote | 125,000 | 0 |
Construction of and experiments with submarines | 150,000 | 0 |
Total | 4,294,000 | 0 |
For the gun and torpedo armaments of new ships, and mines. | 2,129,500 | 0 |
Miscellaneous expenditure: dockyards, etc. | 351,907 | 10 |
| 6,819,622 | 10 |
From which has to be deducted, credited in the extraordinary estimates | 1,804,000 | 0 |
Leaving total | 5,015,622 | 10 |
Summary.
| 1907. | 1906. | 1905. | |||
| £ | s. | £ | s. | £ | s. |
Ordinary permanent estimates. | 6,042,309 | 1 | 5,640,101 | 15 | 402,207 | 6 |
Shipbuilding, armament, etc. | 5,015,622 | 10 | 4,434,482 | 10 | 581,140 | 0 |
Extraordinary expenditure. | 2,368,513 | 0 | 2,598,250 | 0 | 270,263 | 0 |
Totals | 13,926,444 | 11 | 12,672,834 | 5 | 1,253,610 | 6 |
The five battleships of the Kaiser class (Barbarossa, Friedrich III, Wilhelm II, Wilhelm-der-Grosse, and Karl-der-Grosse) are to be rebuilt and rearmed. The work has been begun on the Kaiser-Barbarossa.-Moniteur de la Flotte.
The German cruiser Koenigsberg on her full power trials realized I.H.P. 13,918 and 24.1 knots. These results were well over contract-Engineer.
The construction of submarine boats has recently been taken up by German shipbuilders, and after a series of trials on a small model boat, the Germania shipyards at Kiel have just completed a large submarine of 240 tons. The main dimensions of this vessel are: Length over all, 137.5 feet; maximum width across frames, 11.7 feet; draft of boat when emerged 7.8 feet. An electric motor and gas engine, each with an out put of 200 indicated horsepower, are fitted to each of the two propeller shafts, the propeller being adjusted from the inside of the vessel. The electric motors are designed for propulsion below water, and receive current from an accumulator battery installed amidships. The battery is sufficient to drive the boat below water for fully three hours at its maximum speed of 9 knots. When on the surface, the gas engines are preferably to be used. The fuel is carried in tanks, arranged outside of the boat (according to patents of the Germania shipyards) thus guarding against explosion. The store carried by the submarine enables the latter to cover a distance of moo knots at her maximum speed of ii knots on the surface.
The motors can obviously be used also for propulsion above water, while both types of motor can also be used simultaneously for the propulsion of the vessel.
{figure}
THE BOAT SUBMERGED AND TRAVELING AT FULL SPEED.
The submersion and emersion of the boat is effected by filling and discharging the ballast tanks arranged inside, as well as by the aid of two pairs of horizontal rudders. The maximum admissible depth of submersion has been fixed at about 120 feet. Only five minutes are required to prepare for submerging the boat.
Special care has been bestowed on ventilation, which is secured by an electrically operated ventilator, which, as long as the boat is above water, will constantly supply all the rooms with fresh air. When submerged, the vitiated air is passed through a cleaning tank, after which it returns toward the various compartments of the boat. With a crew of to men the vessel is able to sail under water for periods up to 24 hours.
The armored conning-tower arranged in the center of the boat and inclosing all necessary instruments, such as viewing apparatus, manometers, rudders, and telephones, is large enough readily to accommodate the commander and the pilot. Two periscopes have been provided, which, both in a vertical and horizontal direction, cover a field of 50 degrees. The length of these inclosing telescopic tubes has been chosen with a view to allow the boat to travel at a depth sufficient to warrant it against gun fire, while still enabling it to cover the whole of the horizon.
The armament of the submarine comprises an 18-inch bow torpedo-launching tube. One of the three large-sized torpedoes carried by the vessel is contained in the tube, while the two remaining ones are arranged in water-tight reservoirs.
Trial runs performed in Eckernforde Bay both in the emerged and submerged condition, have demonstrated the satisfactory sea-going qualities of the submarine.—Scientific American.
A new German torpedo-boat known as G 137 had her first speed trial at Eckernforde Bay July 30, and developed a speed of 32 knots an hour, as against the 30 knots called for in her contract. She was built by the Krupps in the Germania yard at Kiel, and is fitted with turbine engines and as the largest torpedo-boat in the German Navy, being about 50 tons larger than any other boat of this class. Provisions for the construction of boats of this size were adopted by the naval authorities in 194 and G137 is the first of the new vessels.—Nautical Gazette.
With the launching of the Schlesien and Schleswig-Holstcin there are 24 battleships afloat, having each a displacement of from 10,000 to 13,200 tons. A new period in naval construction will now begin, in which the displacement will be increased to 18,000 tons, and the armament will be completely altered. This is expected to increase the cost of building each ship from 24,250,000 marks (11,212,500) to 36,500,000 marks (11,825,000). The 24 battleships just mentioned constitute the total output in battleships during the present emperor's reign. Of the number, 18 have been built in private yards and only6 in government yards—a distribution of the work which has had the effect of increasing the number of workmen employed in private yards from 20,400 men in 1890 to 41,300 at present. Simultaneously, the productive capacity of German shipbuilding yards has become greater, for whereas the construction of a ship of the Brandenburg class, with a displacement of 10,000 tons, took from three to four years in the early '90’s, the Deutschland, which has a displacement of 13,200 tons, has taken only three years to complete.
The German Admiralty is resolved that, in addition to the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal between the North Sea and the Baltic, other waterways shall be available for use by shallow-draft craft, and for this purpose the waters referred to are being tested by torpedo-boats, which are passing repeatedly through the Elbe and Trave Canal and the old Schleswig-Holstein Canal, which is a continuation of the North Sea and Baltic Canal between Rendburg and Tonning at the mouth of the Eider.
Motor boats are being used more and more as tenders for waiting on the war-ships and torpedo-boats. They travel at the rate of 20 knots.
The German Admiralty has begun to build the projected naval school at Murwik, on the Flensburg Fiord. This school, which is to cost 100,000, is to be finished by the spring of 1908, when it will be occupied by the naval cadets of 1907, on their return from foreign waters. Next year the latest enrolled cadets and the cadet division will be transferred from Kiel and the Kiel forts to Murwik.
DOCKING ACCOMMODATION AT THE DISPOSAL OF THE GERMAN FLEET.—The largest floating dock in the world is at Hamburg, at the building yard of Messrs. Blohm & Vose. It can lift ships of a displacement of 22,500 tons, and is 756 feet long, with a beam of 88 feet 6 inches. This yard also possesses three other docks capable of taking in vessels of 17,500 tons,4500 tons, and 30000 tons respectively.
The capacity of 22,500 tons of the first dock is obtained by joining a section of the 17,500-ton dock, called the "Elb" dock, with a 17,000-ton pontoon-dock. This dock is constructed in such a manner that its working is independent; it is provided with a central and auxiliary engine, so that in case of war it can be at once towed towards the mouth of the Elbe.
The Reiherstieg Yard possesses two docks capable of lifting two ships of 11,500 and 5000 tons respectively. The Brandenberg and Stulken Yards also possess two good docks, that of the first being able to take in vessels of 7200 tons, and of the latter, vessels of 7000 tons. The largest graving dock belongs to the Hamburg-American Line; it is 400 feet long, with a beam of 60 feet 6 inches; but another dock, 700 feet long, is under construction. The firm of Blohm & Voss are construction a new dock, which is to be able to take in a vessel of 35,000 tons, and at the Vulcan Yard at Stettin, two very large new docks are being constructed. The dock at Bremen, which is leased by the town to the Norddeutscher Lloyd Co., can compare with the largest docks in England, being 760 feet long, with a breadth of 108 feet. The graving docks at Kiel, with a length of 594 feet and a breadth of 95 feet 3 inches, can take in vessels of the dimensions of the Dreadnought. The docks at Wilhelmshaven have a similar capacity.
Germany possesses, in addition, some other large docks: that of the Seebeck Yard, at Geestemunde (525 feet long); the Vulcan Yard, at Stettin, which is 510 feet long, and will fake in a vessel of 12,000 tons; that of the Weser Yard, which will take in a vessel of mono tons; and two belonging to the Norddeutscher Lloyd, 576 feet and 380 feet long respectively.— United Service Institution.
GREAT BRITAIN.
VESSELS BUILDING.
Name. | Displacement. | Where Building. | Remarks. |
Battleships. |
|
|
|
Bellerophon. | 18,550 | Portsmouth. | Launched July 27, 1907. |
Temeraire. | 18,550 | Devonport. | “ Aug. 24, 1907 |
Superb. | 18,550 | Newcastle. | Building. |
Lord Nelson. | 16,500 | Jarrow (Palmer). | Launched Sept. 4, 1906. |
Agamemnon. | 16,500 | Glasgow (Beardmore) | Under trial. |
Armored Cruisers. |
|
|
|
Minotaur. | 14,600 | Devonport. | Launched June 6, 1906. |
Shannon. | 14,600 | Chatham | “ Sept. 20, 1906. |
Defence. | 14,600 | Pembroke. | “ Apr. 27, 1906. |
Invincible. | 17,250 | Newcastle. | “ Apr. 13, 1907. |
Inflexible. | 17,250 | Clydebank. | “ June 26, 1907. |
Indomitable. | 17,250 | Glasgow. | “ Mar. 16, 1907. |
Cruiser. |
|
|
|
Boadicea. | 3,300 | Pembroke. | Building. |
THE NEW BRITISH BATTLESHIPS.—In the two battleships which are to be laid down in accordance with the current year's program, a departure from the policy adopted in regard to the armament of the Dreadnought is to be effected. While of the same class and type, they will be 2000 tons heavier, their displacement being about 20,000 tons. In regard to the main armament, there will not be so many weapons of the larger caliber, though they will be much heavier, a new 13.5-inch weapon which has been severely tested being adopted in the place of the 12-inch. This gun fires a shell weighing 1250 pounds as compared with the 850-pound shell of the 12-inch arm. Moreover, a secondary battery of medium quick-firing guns is to be carried, a feature which is entirely absent in the Dreadnought, and which deficiency has been severely criticised. The effect of this modification will be that the new vessels will have an aggregate broadside fire of some 8500 pounds as compared with 6800 pounds in the Dreadnought. These two vessels are to be laid down at once at the Portsmouth and Devonport dockyards respectively, and they will each cost over ten million dollars. At the present time the armament firms in the country are working at full pressure to deliver the present order of 12-inch guns for the navy's immediate requirements, no less than 120 of these weapons being in course of construction.—Scientific American.
It is understood that three more battleships of an improved Dreadnought type will be commenced at an early date, the fate of the third vessel having been decided by the assured failure of the Hague Congress to come to an agreement for the limitation of armaments.
Preparations are already well advanced at Portsmouth for the laying down of the keel-plates of the first of these men-of-war on the slip recently vacated by the Bellerophon, and the second will be begun at Devon- Port about a month later, while the third—the construction of which has been problematical pending the result of the Peace Conference—will be built by a private firm.—Page's Weekly.
{chart}
Note.-Provision to the extent of £977,091 is included in the Estimates for 1907-1908 under Votes 8, 10 and 12, for the continuation of services hither to provided for out of funds raised under the authority of the Naval Works Acts, 1895 to 1906.-United Service Institution.
It is stated on good authority that the Admiralty's next shipbuilding program will include the laying down of a new type of armored cruiser at Pembroke Dockyard during 1908-9. Although small warships have been sold out of the Service on the ground that their limited fighting value did not justify the expenditure on maintenance, the recent earthquake in Jamaica and the riot at St. Lucia, during both of which no British warship was immediately available for aid, have convinced the Admiralty that a new class of ship of appreciable fighting power, suitable for detached police duties and for periodically visiting remote stations, is necessary. The new vessel will, therefore, be intermediate in size between a second-class cruiser and the ships of the Duke of Edinburgh class. She will be protected by side armor, will mount 7.5-inch guns, and will have a speed of 23 knots per hour.—United Service Gazette.
The new battleship Bellerophon, a sister-ship to the Dreadnought, was successfully launched at Portsmouth on July 24. The Bellerophon is an improved Dreadnought, and will include many of those improvements which have been found to be necessary during the recent trials of the Dreadnought. The new ship will have a greater displacement than her predecessor on the building slip, the Dreadnought's tonnage being 17,900 tons, whereas the Bellerophon, when completed, will displace 18,600 tons. The length and beam are identical with the older ship, 490 feet and 82 feet, respectively. Uncertainty prevails as to the armament of the new vessel, but there is a general impression that her main armament will be the same as the Dreadnought—ten 12-inch guns—with the addition of 4-inch guns in the place of the 12-pounders carried by the Dreadnought for repelling torpedo attack. The new vessel will have turbine engines, and the shafts for the four propellers have been already drilled. In every other respect the Bellerophon will be like the Dreadnought. The launching weight of the new ship was 7000 tons. The first keel plate was laid on December 3, so that eight months have been taken in reaching the launching stage. The engines are by the Fairfield Company, and the vessel will have a speed of 21 knots.—United Service Gazette.
The Bellerophon and her sisters should be improvements on the Dreadnought, the experience gained with that vessel having been utilized in their construction and equipment. The displacement is increased by 700 tons, but how exactly this extra weight will be used has not been officially revealed. It is believed, however, that it will be partly absorbed in constructional re-arrangement, including the raising of the middle turret on the center line to a level with that of the forecastle turret. There will also be an improvement in the anti-torpedo defence armament, a new 4-inch gun being substituted for the 12-pounders of the Dreadnought. This alteration will most likely require a redistribution of this battery. It has also been suggested that the armored belt may be carried higher up the side of the ship, because if nothing in this direction is done the belt will most likely, with the increased displacement, be below water when the ship is fully laden. These vessels should be easily completed for sea by the end of next year, and thus enable us with the Invincibles and Lord Nelsons to have a fleet of eight ships absolutely unrivalled or approached by any other naval power.—Army and Navy Gazette.
England's third battleship of the Dreadnought class, the Temeraire, was successfully launched August 24, at Devonport. She is the heaviest war ship ever launched from a royal dockyard. Her launching weight was 7475 tons, which is 500 tons heavier than the Bellerophon. The Temeraire will mount ten 12-inch guns, the same as the Dreadnought. Four-inch guns have been substituted for the Dreadnought's 12-pounders for repelling torpedo-boat attacks.
She is the fifth of her name in the British Navy.
THE ELECTRIC OUTFIT OF THE DREADNOUGHT.—The electric outfit of the Dreadnought is unusually complete. At the top of the foremast, and immediately above the forward funnel, is the fire control platform, upon which are placed the range finders, for locating the position of an enemy or target at sea. In the turrets and on this platform is installed a new automatic system of range finding and gun elevating, by means of which the range as read will be electrically transmitted to each gun position, where, by the use of synchronized motors, the elevation of the guns will be steadily and continuously changed to correspond with the increasing or decreasing range, as recorded by the range finder on the platform. This method is said to remove all possibility of error in the transmission of information as to the ranges and in the manual elevation of the guns, and leaves to the gun crew merely the duty of traversing the guns, and thus keeping them fixed upon the enemy. The lofty fore top mast places the fore truck fully 200 feet above the water line. A short main mast is carried in the usual position, mainly for the support of the antenna of the wireless telegraph equipment.—Iron Age.
NAVAL QUESTIONS IN THE HOUSE OF COMMONS.
BRITISH AND GERMAN SHIPBUILDING PROGRAMS.—Mr. E. Robertson, having been asked to what years program the armored cruisers Minotaur, Shannon, Defence, Achilles, Cochrane, Natal, and Warrior belonged; on what dates they were laid down; on what dates they were, or would be completed; and what time was occupied in building them, replied as follows (the dates marked with asterisks being as estimated):
Ship. | Program. | Date laid down. | Date completed. | Time occupied in building. Yrs. Mths. |
Minotaur. | 1904-5 | Jan. 2, 1905 | *Feb., 1908 | 3 1 |
Shannon. | Do. | Jan. 2, 1905 | *Feb., 1908 | 3 1 |
Defence. | Do. | Feb. 22, 1906 | *Dec., 1908 | 3 10 |
Achilles. | 1903-4 | Feb. 22, 1904 | Mar., 1907 | 3 1 |
Cochrane. | Do. | Mar. 24, 1904 | Feb., 1907 | 3 11 |
Natal. | Do. | Jan. 6, 1904 | Apr., 1907 | 3 3 |
Warrior. | Do. | Nov. 5, 1903 | May., 1907 | 3 6 |
It was then asked to what year's program the German armored cruisers Gucisenau, Scharnhorst, Roon, and Yorck belonged; on what dates they were laid down; on what dates they were completed; and what time was occupied in building them. The following information was given:
Ship. | Program. | Date laid down. | Date completed. | Time occupied in building. Yrs. Mths. |
Gneisenau. | 1904-5 | June, 1904 (launched June 14, 1906). | Not yet completed. | … … |
Scharnhorst. | 1905-6 | May, 1905 (launched March 22, 1906). | Do. | … … |
Roon. | 1902-3 | Aug. 1, 1902. | Oct., 1905 | 3 2 |
Yorck. | 1903-4 | April 25, 1903 | Nov., 1905 | 3 6 |
THE NAVY ESTIMATES.—Mr. E. Robertson, in submitting the vote of £2,549,900for naval establishments and dockyard and naval yards at home and abroad, announced the decision of the Admiralty as to supplying cooling appliances to the magazines in which cordite was stored on board ships, and as to testing the cordite. The expenditure involved in the present financial year would be £200,000. Dealing with the shipbuilding program, he said: "The Board of Admiralty did not recognize in the case of destroyers any hard-and-fast age limit. This year they would build five ocean-going destroyers, and 12 turbine-engined torpedo-boats. Counting coastal destroyers, France had 65, Germany 83, and Great Britain, 191. The British fleet of destroyers was on the whole superior in essential qualities to those of other powers. The total sum which was being spent on new construction was £8,100,000, and of this £2,800,000 was for cruisers. Firs to fall came the vessels of the Invincible type. Each of these would cost £1,720,000. There were to be three cruisers of the Minotaur type, each of which would cost £1,400,000. Then there were to be four cruisers of the Warrior class, costing £1,200,000. The Boadicea—a new departure—laid down at Pembroke early in the financial year, would cost £350,000. As to repairs of ships, in the last year of the previous government, the amount set aside for repairs was £1,628,000; the present government increased that by £282,000. In the present year the estimate was £1,888,000, and up to date they had over-spent to the extent of £44,000. The officers responsible for repairs in the navy reported that the fleets in commission, fully manned, were in excellent condition.
OFFICERS' MESS EXPENSES.-Mr. Robertson stated that the average cost Per head borne by officers in the navy for their daily messing and the expenses of servants and upkeep of the mess was prescribed by the King's Regulations as follows: In the ward-room, the monthly mess subscription is not to exceed £3. In the gun-room, the monthly mess subscription is not to exceed 30s.; but in addition to this sum 5s. may be charged for replacing mess utensils and other necessary expenses; and the following sums may also be allowed for extras, should a member choose to indulge in them namely, for commissioned officers, £1 a month; for other members, 10s. a month. Each ward-room officer entitled to the services of a marine servant is required to pay the sum of loss a month to the man employed; if the services of the man are shared with another officer, each officer is required to pay the sum of 6 s. a month to the man. The average value of rations provided for officers in the navy at the public cost is 10d. per diem. The whole cost of naval ratings of cooks and waiters required to keep up the officers' messing is provided at the public expense.
MOBILIZATION OF THE HOME FLEET.-Mr. E. Robertson, answering Mr. Gretton, who asked if official notification was given to the home fleet 12 days before the date of the recent mobilization, and when the Admiralty tested the instant readiness for war of this fleet, as at present organized, by a surprise mobilization, said that no surprise mobilization had been carried out since last year. That was entirely satisfactory, and the conditions were now more favorable.
THE ADMIRALTY AND THE TRIAL OF OFFICERS.-Mr. Robertson, replying to Mr. Bellairs, who asked whether it was the established practice of the navy to hold a public court-martial on every officer who lost or surrendered his ship; and, if so, whether he could state why this rule had not been enforced in the case of the Ariel, lost on Malta breakwater on April 19, said that the practice was usual, but not invariable. Where all the facts had been brought out by a court of inquiry, as in that case, the Admiralty had power to deal with it directly without further trial. The officer in question was censured.
ORDERS FOR SUBMARINES.-Mr. E. Robertson informed Mr. G. D. Faber that seven submarines had been ordered from Messrs. Vickers, and in addition two had been commenced at Chatham since the present government came into office. In accordance with the practice of successive Boards of Admiralty in regard to this class of vessel, and continued after due consideration by the present board, no competitive tenders were obtained.
To Mr. Faber, who wished to know whether the cost of submarines was not increased by the system of secret contracts with private firms, Mr. Robertson said the Admiralty were testing that by competition with the dockyards.—United Service Gazette.
High topgallant masts for the new type of "wireless" are to be fitted to all modern British warships.—Engineer.
Since Lord Charles Beresford issued an order to the Channel fleet, regretting the disuse of the boatswain's pipe as a medium for conveying naval commands, the Admiralty, having had under consideration the best means of retaining the use of this time-honored instrument, have directed that to per cent of boys in training establishments are to be instructed in such familiar and traditional calls as the following: Call hands, lash up and stow, reelers, heave round capstan, walk back capstan, haul taut, hoist away, high enough, piped inner, pipe down, pipe side, callaway boat, call away galley, stand by wash clothes, and sweepers. In order to encourage the boys a prize is to be awarded out of the Boys' Fund each half-year.—United Service Gazette.
An Admiralty order has been received at Pembroke dockyard directing the installation of a new system of ventilation in the magazines of all British warships, whether in commission or building. The new system provides for the utilization of carbonic acid gas for the purpose of keeping the temperature of the magazines at all times below 70 degrees F., and the order directs that estimates are to be prepared for fitting the installation into all ships at Royal dockyards.—United Service Gazette.
No less than three accidents to destroyers were reported during the week ending July 13. The Mallard went ashore at Lefkimo, on the coast of Corfu, on the 9th inst., but was subsequently got off and towed to Malta in a damaged condition. The Violet arrived at Sheerness, on the loth inst., with a considerable rent in the port side near the fore bridge, the damage having been received in a collision with a sailing vessel in the North Sea. The Violet was towed to Sheerness by the Falcon, and has since been docked for repairs. It is stated that the fore part of the vessel in front of the bow gun will have to be practically rebuilt. The third mishap was to the Lee, which arrived at Devonport on Sunday with a hole in her starboard side, caused by a collision with the Dutch cruiser Friesland, off Torbay. Several of the crew who were asleep, had narrow escapes. The Friesland, which was practically undamaged, offered assistance after the collision, but it was found not to be required.
The destroyer Quail was towed into Portsmouth on the 7th of August, in a sinking condition, having been in collision with the scout Attentive, while engaged in night operations with the home fleet off Swanage. The destroyer presented a curious appearance when placed in dock, about 40 feet of her bow up to the conning-tower being shorn clean away, leaving the mess deck exposed. A grave disaster was narrowly averted, and several men had marvelous escapes. On the following day it was announced that the destroyers Kestrel and Teviot, of the Portsmouth flotilla, were in collision about 1 a. m. off Swanage. The former's bow was badly dam- aged, but the injury to the Teviot was very slight. The cruiser Eclipse took the Kestrel in tow, and towed her stern foremost to Portsmouth, where she was placed in dock. The Cynthia, of the same flotilla, was also towed to Portsmouth her steering apparatus being disabled. On the Kestrel being docked it was found that about 30 feet of her bow had been damaged.—United Service Gazette.
LAUNCHES.—The first-class armored cruiser, inflexible was launched June 26, and is the last to be put into the water of the three vessels of similar design ordered by the Admiralty. All three ships are identical in their features, and their auxiliary machinery has been made to be interchangeable. The turbines are alike in their general dimensions, so that they may be transferred from one vessel to another. The details of the design have not been officially disclosed. The principal dimensions and features are, however, available. She has a length overall of 530 feet, a beam of 78 feet 6 inches, with a draft of 26 feet. The weight of the hull is given as 9660 tons, and the displacement 17,250 tons. The engines are to develop 41,000 I.H.P. The speed to be attained is 25 knots, the coal capacity at load draft being moo tons. The machinery is of the Parsons steam turbine type, steam being supplied from water-tube boilers. There will be four shafts. On each of the two inner shafts there will be a cruising turbine—low pressure ahead and low pressure astern—while on each of the outer shafts will be a high pressure ahead and a high pressure astern turbine. The Inflexible's armament will consist of eight 12-inch guns, equal to 381,576 foot-tons for one round. All the guns can be fired on either broadside. The bow guns are on the center line forward, while on the same high level there is amidships, on each broadside, a pair of guns in barbettes, which are not in the same athwartship line. The barbette on the port side is sufficiently further forward than that on the starboard side to enable all four amid ship guns to fire on either side. The Inflexible has a complete belt of armor from bow to stern, the maximum thickness being 7 inches, tapering to 4 inches at each end. The guns will be within 7-inch barbettes, and have large armor hoods. The cruiser will also have ma- chine guns for defence against torpedo attack.
The Tartar,one of the new ocean-going torpedo-boat destroyers ordered from Messrs. John I. Thornycroft & Co. (Limited), was also launched on the 27th. The dimensions of the vessel are: Length, 270 feet; beam, 26feet;draft,8feet2inches. The contract speed is 33 knots. The vessel is to be fitted with turbine machinery of the Parson's type (built by Messrs. Thornycroft) and six Thornycroft water-tube boilers, arranged for burn- ing oil fuel. The armament will consist of three 12-pounder quick-firing guns and two i8-inch torpedo-tubes.—United Service Institution.
THE NEW TORPEDO-BOATS—The 12 first-class torpedo-boats provided for in the program for 1906-7, and recently ordered to be built by contract, are to be numbered consecutively from 13 to 24. The boats will be larger and will have greater capacity for the storage of oil fuel than torpedo-boats Nos. 1 to 12, built under the program for 1905-6, whose length varies from 166 feet 6 inches to 18o feet, with displacements varying from 215 to 235 tons. The new boats will vary from 173 feet to 185 feet in length, with displacements from 251 to 280 tons. Their engines will be of 4000 I.H.P. (250 I.H.P. in excess of the power of Nos. 1 to 12), and their storage for oil fuel will range between 23 and 25 tons at load draft. The new boats will steam 26 knots, and will be equipped with two 12-pounder quick-firing guns and three torpedo tubes. The boats will be built by the following firms: Two by Messrs. Denny Brothers, Dumbarton; two by Messrs. Hawthorn, Leslie & Co., Newcastle-on-Tyne; one by Palmer's Shipbuilding Company, Jarrow two by Messrs. Thornycroft & Co., Woolston; four by Messrs. J. S. White & Co., Cowes; and one by Messrs. Yarrow & Co., Poplar.—United Service Institution.
THE NAVAL DEBATE.—The discussion on the shipbuilding vote was particularly interesting. Mr. Robertson confined his remarks to questions concerning the material side of the navy. After explaining the steps which are being taken for the better ventilation of the magazines, he referred to the future program, and its bearing on the maintenance of the two-power standard. It is now acknowledged freely by everyone that we are stronger than the two-power standard, and must be stronger for some time to come.
Mr. Robertson tells us that two more Dreadnoughts are to be laid down in November on the slips vacated by the Bellerophon and Temeraire, and that another one will be put out to contract early next year, unless, as is most improbable, something definite is decided by the Hague Conference concerning disarmament. Turning to the cruiser policy, he explained the principles upon which this is based. There is not one writer or student of naval matters, whose judgment and experience make his opinion valuable, who has not endorsed the policy of the Admiralty in this direction. It is generally acknowledged that of all naval problems that which concerns the cruiser is the most difficult; and it must be remembered that in formulating the two-power standard originally Lord George Hamilton confined himself to battleships, and to battleships only. With the exception of a very small group of critics, who are not agreed amongst themselves, the consensus of naval opinion favors three classes of cruisers. One class fitted to fulfill the primary function of cruisers, that of controlling the lines of communication and acting as the fast wing of the battle fleet—fit to be detached at need as scouts, or or the support of a more numerous but less powerful squadron of smaller vessels. A second class more numerous and faster but less well armed and protected, and with a narrower range of action; the function in this case being police duties in time of peace and commerce defenders in time of war. The third class to perform the duty of despatch vessels and the supports of destroyers. It is the functions that control the type, and the Admiralty believe that in the Invincible, a new Edgar, and the Boadicea classes they have found types suitable for their purpose. If we understand Mr. Robertson aright, we may expect, therefore, shortly that the program of construction will contain a number of these smaller cruisers.
Very directly connected with the cruiser policy is the question of the strength and composition of our torpedo flotillas. It has been well pointed out that the advent of the torpedo flotilla and its power of offence against larger types of ships introduce a new condition both tactically and strategically, and the problem thus presented requires a new solution. The new destroyers, indeed, have two functions to perform—that for which they were originally intended, the destruction of other torpedo craft; and that for which the late war proved them to be most deadly, the attack with torpedoes on larger vessels. Moreover, there is still room for the torpedo-boat, and therefore it seems likely that both ocean-going destroyers and torpedo-boats of the new type must be found in the new programs. As we understand Mr. Robertson, this, with the addition of submarines, is what we may expect.—Army and Navy Gazette.
ADMIRALTY SURVEYS.—The report on Admiralty surveys for the year 1906 has been issued in the form of a Blue Book. During the year the rocks and shoals dangerous to navigation which were reported numbered 367; a length of 658 miles of coast line was charted, and an area of 2950 square miles was sounded over by British surveying vessels, but the need for more numerous and more detailed hydrographic surveys is manifest, particularly in those parts where commece is spreading into localities which are but still imperfectly charted. From officers of His Majesty's ships 58 charts, plans, and sketches of anchorages were received for the amendment of official documents; the new charts published amounted to 116, and 66 plates were improved by the addition of 84 new plans; while 86,868 charts have received corrections.—United Service Gazette.
Le Yacht gives the following particulars of the Bellerophon class: They displace 18,600 tons; have a maximum speed of 21.5 knots, with 24,700 horsepower at four shafts actuated by turbines; and can steam 5800 knots at 12 knots speed on their normal coal supply of 900 tons. At full load they can carry 2500 tons of coal and oil. Their armament consists of ten 12-inch guns of 50 calibers, mark XI, and more powerful than the 45 calibers, mark X, guns of the Dreadnought. All the 12-inch guns are in double turrets on the midship's line. The second battery is composed of 4-inch guns, and there are five 18-inch under-water torpedo tubes. The belt armor is it inches at the center and 4 inches at the ends; the turrets and forward conning-tower are is inches; the after conning-tower is 8-inches; the principal armored deck is 2.75 inches on the slope and 1.75 inch on the flat. There is also an arrangement, intended for torpedo protection, by means of which the gases of explosion can find free exit between the inner and outer skins. The full complement will be 850 men.
ITALY.
VESSELS BUILDING.
Name. | Displacement. | Where Building. | Remarks. |
Battleships. |
|
|
|
Roma. | 12,625 | Gov’t Yard, Spezia. | Launched Apr. 21, 1907. |
Napoli. | 12,625 | “ “ Naples. | “ Sept. 10, 1905. |
Vittorio Emanuele. | 12,625 | “ “ Castellamare. | “ October 1, 1904. |
Armored Cruisers. |
|
|
|
San Giorgio. | 9,800 | Gov’t Yard, Castellamare. | Building. |
San Marco. | 9,800 | “ “ “ | “ |
Pisa. | 9,800 | Orlando. | “ |
Amalfi. | 9,800 | Odero. | “ |
Following are trial results of the Regina Elena in her 24 hours' trials at four-fifths power-15,200 horsepower—I.H.P. 15,473=20.33. The Vittor Emanuele in her preliminary runs at four-fifths for eight hours made 16,000 I.H.P. and 21 knots.—Engineer.
The Superior Council has prepared a new naval program, the cost of which will reach nearly 160 million francs. This program will include 16,000-ton battleships, very heavily armed, but with a small coal supply; torpedo-boats of at least 500 tons; and submarines of 150 tons. The first of the new battleships is to be laid down at Castellamare after the launching of the San Giorgio.
The San Marco is to be launched in the spring of 1938, and it is hoped to finish the San Giorgio by July, 1909. The similar ships, Pisa and Amalfi, are to be delivered in April and June, 1908.—Le Yacht.
The Italian naval authorities have decided to sell or break up a number of battleships and other vessels during the five years 1907-12. The list comprises 21 ships of various classes, including the Duilio (launched in 1877) and the Andrea Doria (launched in 1891), as well as numerous torpedo-boats. With the proceeds, which are estimated at £260,000, the government intends to make large purchases of coal for the Italian Navy.
The armor-plate factory at Terni has accepted a contract to provide the Italian Navy with 6000 tons of armor-plate at the same price as that at which the Midvale Steel Company, of Philadelphia, recently took a contract from the Italian government. Thus the contract with the American company has had the effect of forcing the Italian works to lower their prices, and the result is a saving of 116,000 to the Italian government. Page's Weekly.
JAPAN.
VESSELS BUILDING.
Name. | Displacement. | Where Building. | Remarks. |
Battleships. |
|
|
|
Satsuma. | 19,200 | Yokosuka. | Launched Nov. 15, 1906. |
Aki. | 19,800 | Kure. | “ Apr. 15, 1907. |
Armored Cruisers. |
|
|
|
Ibuki. | 13,750 | Yokosuka. | Building. |
Kurama. | 13,750 | “ | “ |
Haki. |
| Kure. | “ |
Protected Cruisers. |
|
|
|
Tone. | 4,100 | Sassebo. | Building. |
Scouts |
|
|
|
Yodo. | 1,350 | Kobe. | Building. |
Mogami. | 1,350 | “ | “ |
CONTRACTS FOR BATTLESHIPS AND ARMOR AWARDED.—The Secretary of the Navy has awarded the contracts for the two battleships of the so-called Dreadnought class to the Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co. and the Fore River Shipbuilding Co., respectively. The proposals of the former company would have enabled the government to build both vessels at much lower cost than will now be possible, but the law forbade the allotment of more than one ship to a single contractor.
In accepting the bid of the Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co. the department gives the contractor the alternative of building a vessel on the company's plans, involving the use of the Parsons turbine for motive power, with certain slight modifications suggested by the experts of the Bureau of Construction and Steam Engineering, or upon the original plans of the department, which include reciprocating engines. If the former proposition is accepted the contractors will receive $4,090,000; otherwise they will be paid $3,987,000.
Two Turbine Battleships Probable.—The bid of the Fore River Shipbuilding Co. accepted by the department is based on the use of the Curtis type of turbine, the contract price being $4,377,000. It will thus be seen that if the Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co. elects to build on its own plans, which is regarded as highly probable, both big battle- ships will be equipped with turbine engines, which will mark a most important innovation in the American Navy, no other ships of this type having been designed for turbine motors.
The Secretary of the Navy has had little difficulty in disposing of the bids submitted by the naval constructors of the Brooklyn and Mare Island Navy Yards for the construction of the two big vessels. The lowest of these bids, it is now learned, was approximately$700,000 higher than the minimum bid of the Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co. and more than $300,000 higher than the bid of the Fore River Shipbuilding Co., upon which the contract to that company has been awarded.
Armor Contracts.—After an important readjustment of the bid of the Midvale Steel Co., the contracts for the armor for the two battleships have been awarded as follows: Bethlehem Steel Co., 3602 tons; Carnegie Steel Co., 3543 tons; Midvale Steel Co., 2230 tons. These awards are made on the basis of $420 per ton for Class A armor (7956 tons) and $400 per ton for Class B (952 tons), Class C (392 tons), and Class D (76 tons). In submitting its bid the Midvale Steel Co. reclassified the armor according to the mechanical difficulties to be encountered in its manufacture and quoted prices on the basis of a series of five groups. The Secretary of the Navy did not regard this as a satisfactory basis for comparisons and he therefore advised the Midvale Co. that its bid could not be considered unless submitted in accordance with the department's schedule. The proposal based on groups was then withdrawn and the Midvale Company offered to make armor at the same prices as those quoted by its competitors, whereupon a contract was awarded as above indicated.—Iron Age.
TURBINE SCOUT CRUISER LAUNCHED.—The new scout cruiser Chester has been launched successfully from the yard of the Bath Iron Works.
The Chester is one of three vessels of this type authorized by the act of Congress of April 17,1904,and was awarded to the Bath Iron Works at a contract price of $1,688,000, with contract time of delivery set at May 4, 1908. Her sister ships are the Salem and the Birmingham, both building at Quincy, Mass.
The dimensions of the Chester are as follows: Length overall, 423 feet 2 inches; breadth, 46 feet 8 inches; draft, fully loaded, 19 feet 1 1/2 inches; depth amid ships, molded, 36 feet 8 inches; displacement, fully loaded, 4840 tons; displacement on trial, 3750 tons; trial draft, 16 feet 9 1/2 inches.
Two 5-inch guns and six 3-inch guns, also two 21-inch submerged torpedo tubes, will make up her battery. The machinery consists of six turbines, driving four independent shafts, each fitted with one propeller. These turbines are installed in two separate water-tight compartments, and so arranged that should one compartment become injured or flooded the ship could still be maneuvered. Steam is to be furnished by 12 water-tube boilers. Her contract speed is 24 knots.—Nautical Gazette.
OILAS FUEL FOR WARSHIPS.—The Bureau of Equipment, Navy Department, has decided, in order to determine the relative efficiency of oil and coal as fuel for warships, to equip the monitor Wyoming with apparatus which will permit the burning of oil. For some time the department has had in mind thorough experiments with oil as fuel, and preliminary investigations along this line have given the officials reason to believe that a thorough test will prove oil a far more satisfactory fuel, from many points of view, than coal. At any rate, they believe it will show an improvement over the soft coal that is generally used on warships. After making preliminary cruises out from Mare Island, the Wyoming will set out for a long-distance test, Hawaii being the objective point. The oil-burning apparatus will be arranged so that it may be removed and coal used in the regular way, in order that a direct comparison of the two fuels may be made on the same ship under the same weather conditions.—Nautical Gazette.
NEW TRAINING SHIP IN COMMISSION.—The U. S. S. Cumberland has Just been placed in commission at the U. S. Naval Training Station, Newport, R.I. The new steel vessel is a sailing ship carrying six 4-inch rapid fire guns in her main battery and is named after the famous old Cumber- land that was sunk by the Merrimac in the Elizabeth River in 1862, with her colors flying. The new Cumberland is to be used for the training of apprentice seamen.—Nautical Gazette.
THE OCEAN RACE OF TORPEDO-BOAT DESTROYERS.—Although the recent ocean race of six of our largest torpedo-boat destroyers, over a 240-mile course from Sandy Hook to Cape Charles, has not turned out to be as great a fiasco as similar races of this kind that have been held in by-gone years in other navies, it can hardly be called a success. The first race of this character, if we remember rightly, took place some 20 years ago, when a large number of torpedo-boats were sent at full speed over a course laid up the English Channel; and it served mainly to demonstrate the frailty of these craft and the impossibility of relying upon them for any long-continued speed effort over a lengthy course. Such of the boats as were not crippled in the engine room or boiler room, began to show evidence of structural weakness. The race left no doubt that the torpedo-boats of that day were altogether too light for deep-sea duty; and it was partly as the result of this experience that the dimensions and scantling of torpedo craft were increased, and the torpedo-boat developed into the dignity of the torpedo-boat destroyer. The increase in size since that date has been steady, the displacement having gone up from 80 or 100 tons to from 300 to 400 tons, while the latest British destroyers are of 300 tons displacement. But even the modern destroyer appears to be unable to maintain full speed for more than a few hours at a stretch. Probably the best work that has been done of late years was the deep-sea service of the Japanese destroyers during the operations at Port Arthur, when these vessels kept the sea, except for occasional visits to a naval rendezvous, through all the stormy months of the winter blockade. It is certain, however, that most of this service was performed at a moderate cruising speed.
TORPEDO BOAT DESTROYERS IN THE SANDY HOOK-CAPE CHARLES RACE.
| Length. | Beam. | Draft. | Displacement on Trial, Tons. | Maximum Coal Supply Tons. | Horse-power. | Trial Speed. |
Whipple. | 248’ 0” | 22’ 3 1/2” | 6’ 0” | 481* | 177 | 8,300 | 28.24 |
Truxtun. | 248’ 0” | 22’ 3 1/2” | 6’ 0” | 481 | 177 | 8,300 | 29.58 |
Worden. | 248’ 0” | 22’ 3 1/2” | 6’ 0” | 476 | 177 | 8,300 | 29.86 |
Hull. | 238’ 9” | 22’ 1 1/2” | 6’ 0” | 449 | 165 | 9,119 | 28.04 |
Hopkins. | 238’ 9” | 22’ 1 1/2” | 6’ 0” | 467 | 165 | 8,456 | 29.02 |
Stewart. | 248’ 0” | 22’ 1” | 6’ 6” | 439 | 184 | 8,000 | 29.69 |
* Because of the large amount of stores, ammunition, coal, water, furniture on board, these vessels at the commencement of the race displaced nearly 700 tons.
The division of torpedo-boats engaged in this race contained representatives of the best of our destroyers. The latest and probably the most efficient of the six is the Stewart, whose dimensions may be taken as representative of the 16 vessels which compose our destroyer fleet. She is 245 feet long; 23 feet 1 inch in beam, and draws 6 feet 6 inches at normal draft. Her displacement on trial was 439 tons, and her trial speed 29.69 knots an hour. The great disparity between the trial speeds of these boats and the speeds which they are able to develop on a sudden order for a run under full power, is to be attributed: First, to the rapid all-round depreciation due to the light construction both of hulls and engines. Secondly, to the fact that, as in the present case, the hulls are frequently foul because of the lengthy absence from dry dock; and thirdly, to the fact that in the cruising condition they are so weighted down with ammunition, general stores, coal, water, and the furniture necessary for living accommodation, that they not infrequently displace fully 50 per cent more than they did on trial. Thus the Hull, when on trial, stripped for speed, and with just enough water and coal for the occasion, displaced about 450 tons. On crossing the line at Sandy Hook, she displaced about 680 tons.
The boats started abreast across an imaginary line drawn from the Sandy Hook light ship at 8.33 on the morning of June 6. Each vessel, judging from the blowing off of the safety valves, was carrying a full head of steam, and they were speedily hull down to the observers at the Sandy Hook station. Although the boats were credited with trial speeds of from 28 to nearly 30 knots an hour, it was not anticipated that they would average more than 22 or 23 knots an hour over the whole course. This should have brought them into Hampton Roads at about 6 o'clock the same evening.
The winner of the race was the Worden, whose time, taken by the American fleet as she passed the Cape Charles light, was 7.40 p. m., the elapsed time for the run being 11 hours and 7 minutes. This works out at just 21.6 knots average for the whole distance—a rather poor showing for the crack boat of half a dozen supposed 28- to 30-knot craft. The Worden was being closely pressed by the Hopkins, when suddenly off Hog Island, the latter broke a propeller strut, and was completely disabled. The propeller, thrashing wildly around, tore a hole in the after compartment, and the Hopkins had to signal for assistance. Her after bulkhead held, fortunately, as did her pumps, and with the aid of a line from the Whipple, she was able to reach Hampton Roads at 8 o'clock on the morning of June 7. It is only fair to state that the Hopkins and Whipple had averaged a higher speed than 21.6 up to the time of the accident, the Whipple slowing down subsequently.
The other boats made a pitiful showing, the Hull taking 16 hours, the Stewart 21 hours, and the Truxtun 22 hours to cover the 240 knots.— Scientific American.
PRESENT AND PROSPECTIVE DOCKING FACILITIES OF THE PACIFIC COAST.— Now that the main strength of the United States Navy may be transferred, temporarily at least, to the Pacific, it becomes interesting to know what the docking facilities are on that coast. Outside of possible accidents, the cruisers and battleships will have to be docked at stated intervals in order to have their hulls cleaned and repainted. As a matter of strict economy, it is said that a steel bottom ought to be cleaned and repainted at least once a year. Now on the entire Pacific coast the United States government has just two dry docks—one at Mare Island in San Francisco bay, and another at Bremerton, Wash., on Puget Sound. Both of these are graving docks. The dry dock at Mare Island is of granite, 513 feet long over all, with a width of 80 feet 7 inches at the entrance, and a depth of 27 feet 6 inches over sill. The dry dock at Bremerton has a wood body and masonry entrance. Its length overall is 650 feet, width of entrance 92 feet 8 inches, and depth over sill 30 feet.
The inevitable naval base under the new order will, of course, be at San Francisco; and the docking facilities of that port consequently become a subject of more than ordinary importance. As may be readily seen, the dry dock at Mare Island will be inadequate to the needs of the occasion. To be sure, a second graving dry dock at Mare Island has been under process of construction for the past six years; but from various causes much delay has been occasioned, and it is stated upon good authority that it would take two or three years to finish the work, even though it were to be hastened with all possible speed. This new dock when finished will be 720 feet long, 102 feet wide, and 30 feet deep. The chief difficulty thus far encountered is in securing a substantial foundation. The formation composing its site is hardly more than a deep bed of mud; and in order to secure a foundation that will hold up the structure when finished, it is found necessary to drive a dense mass of wooden piling. Upon this foundation it is proposed to build the dock of reinforced concrete.
Fortunately, however, the government need not depend upon itself for docking facilities in San Francisco bay. At Hunter's Point on the west shore of the bay, five miles south of the city of San Francisco, the San Francisco Dry Dock Company operates a very extensive plant, and has already done considerable docking for the government, notably that of the Oregon in 1894 and of the New York in 1903. Recently the chief engineer of the company has completed plans for the largest dry dock in the world, to be soon constructed by the company at Hunter's Point. The company's present plant consists of two graving docks and two floating docks. The first graving dock was completed in 1868. It is 490 feet long over all, 97 feet wide at the gate top and 56 feet wide at the gate sill; midships it is 117 feet wide at the top and 58 feet wide at the bottom. This dock has wooden altars and wooden caisson. The second graving dock was completed in 1903, and in it the Ohio was docked in February of that year. This dock is 750 feet long overall; width at gate top, 103 1/2 feet; at gate bottom, 86 feet; midships at top, 122 feet wide and 74 feet at bottom. This dock has concrete altars and a steel caisson; it is filled through the caisson, while the old dock is filled through a seven-foot tunnel.
The largest dry dock in the world to-day is at Belfast, Ireland; San Francisco will shortly possess a dock of even greater dimensions. The new dry dock above referred to will be 1050 feet long from gate to the landward extremity; width at coping, 144 feet, and at bottom, 92 feet; depth over sill and below coping, 39 feet to inches, or 34 feet 6 inches at high water. The interior facing of the dock will be of reinforced concrete of an average thickness of 15 inches; and the altars will be of the same material. The stairways and timber slides will be formed in the main body of the dock, and will be flush with the surface of the same. Such portions, of the sides of the dock as will be above the rock formation underlying the site will be reinforced concrete, and will be proportional in thickness to the height of the same, and anchored into the rock with structural steel posts. The gates eat proper will be of dimension granite, but the approach and buttresses will be of reinforced concrete. The keelsons are to be of Douglas fir and the flooring of Port Orford cedar, all anchored and embedded in a sub-floor of cement. The drainage of the dock will be by surface gutters connected with a sump. The caisson or gate will be of steel construction, and will be virtually a vessel 147 feet long at the deck, 128 feet long on the keel, with a beam of 26 feet and a depth from deck to bottom of 41 feet.
The pumping plant for the new dock will consist of four 54-inch centrifugal double suction pumps with a joint capacity of 200,000 gallons of water per minute. Each pump will be driven by a 500-horsepower three-phase electric motor, using 440 volts. These will be located at the bottom of the pump pit, and will be so arranged as to be started from the gallery at floor level, it being the intention to use the high-tension current of one of the public service power companies, say at 1000 volts, and transform the same to the requisite voltage.
The dock will hold 24,000,000 gallons of water, but with the pumping plant described, maybe pumped out within the space of two hours. The earth conditions at Hunter's Point are very favorable for the construction of graving dry docks, the site of the present docks and of the proposed dock being under laid with what is known as green serpentine rock, forming a very solid foundation, as well as substantial backing for the sides.
The new dock was neither conceived nor planned in anticipation of any possible massing of the United States navy, but in anticipation of the constantly increasing size of ocean craft and the growing importance of the Pacific Ocean as a maritime field of operation.—Scientific American.
ORDNANCE AND GUNNERY, TORPEDOES.
An official return, prepared by Rear-Admiral Sir Percy Scott, late director of target practice, giving the results of the gun layers' tests of the fleets, has been issued from the Admiralty. The positions in order of merit of the several squadrons and ships were as follows:
1. China squadron, 52.23 points. Best ship: King Alfred, 76.11 points.
2. Mediterranean fleet, 46.80. Best ship: Prince of Wales, 62.98.
3. Atlantic fleet, 45.34. Best ship: Albion, 62.35.
4. Home fleet, 37.72. Best ship: Victorious, 53.46.
5. Fifth cruiser squadron, 35.88. Best ship: Duke of Edinburgh, 47.95.
6. Australian squadron, 35.66. Best ship, Powerful, 50.
7. Channel fleet, 34.45. Best ship: Ocean, 42.25.
8. Third cruiser squadron, 33.41. Best ship: Bacchante, 42.45. Amongst other statistics there is a diagram giving the percentage of hits to rounds fired in the gun layers' tests of the fleets during the past 10 years. In 1897 the percentage of hits was 31.86, and in 1899, which was the lowest of the 10 years, it was 31.1. By 1903 the figures had risen gradually to 46.04, but in the next year they went back to 42.86. From then there was a rapid improvement. In 1905 the percentage of hits was 56.58, and in 1906 it advanced to 71.12, while this year the total percentage for the whole of the fleets reached 81.49 hits out of every hundred rounds fired. About 20 more ships have yet to fire to make this year's practice complete.
The cruiser King Alfred, flagship of Vice-Admiral Sir A. W. Moore, commander-in-chief on the China station, has attained most extraordinary results during gunnery practice at Wei-hai-Wei. In all 198 rounds were fired from 18 guns, and 188 hits were made, of which 112 were bulls. The results with three 6-inch guns in one minute were: 11 rounds, 11 hits, 11 bulls; 14 rounds, 13 hits, 8 bulls; 13 rounds, 13 hits, 9 bulls. With her two 9.2-inch guns the results were in two minutes: 10 rounds, 10 hits, 8 bulls; 9 rounds, 9 hits, 7 bulls. This practice surpasses even the firing in the similar gun layers' test last year by the sister-ship Drake, then flagship of Rear-Admiral Prince Louis of Battenberg. 167 rounds were then fired from a similar number of guns, and 146 hits were recorded. The King Alfred is thus 42 hits to the good, and is far ahead of every ship in the British fleet.
A record for the 6-inch guns in the Atlantic fleet this year has just been made by the battleship Albion, in the gun layers' test at Tetuan, the vessel having remained behind at Gibraltar for repairs when the fleet came to England to give leave to the crews. Ninety-one rounds were fired, resulting in 89 hits, of which 64 were "bulls." Only the latter count in this year's gun layers' test, although hits are recorded for the purpose of comparison with the previous year's firing. The best individual score in the Albion was nine rounds and nine bulls, the next best being eight rounds, seven bulls, and an outer.—United Service Gazette.
THE 1907 GUN LAYERS’ TEST.—The 1907 gun layers' test is now nearly over in all the heavy first-line fleets, such as the Channel, Atlantic, and Mediterranean, but the home fleet divisions, and some of the large and small cruiser squadrons at home and abroad, have yet to complete. Enough has been done, however, to show that there is once again a most gratifying advance in the all-round shooting of the ships, and no part of the progress is more satisfactory than that which is so strongly marked in the scores of our largest present-day naval weapons, viz., the huge 12-inch pieces. For obvious reasons this has pleased the experts immensely, especially those who prophesy that future naval battles will chiefly be decided by guns of the largest caliber, and that an action will be practically settled before any secondary armament can be brought into play.
In a recent issue we criticised, somewhat severely, the way in which night firing had been neglected in the navy, and we do not withdraw a single stricture from what we then uttered. But we are the first to admit that in day firing rapid and accurate firing is making satisfactory progress, and emphatically disagree with those who are assiduously circulating the report that the gunnery spirit in the navy has lost its edge, and that shoot- ing competitions are falling flat through being overdone. There is no shadow of evidence of any such thing in this year's, gun layers' test, while if such a falling-off of keenness was to be found at all, it would instantly be reflected in this competition, which concerns only the men.
Instead of there being a decline, there is an all-round advance, as evidence of which we have but to take only one fleet as an example. In 1906, in the time allowed, the 12-inch guns fired 60 rounds and made 33 hits. In 1907 the 12-inch weapons, mounted in the same fleet, fired 70 rounds and made 33 hits, and out of these 22 were bulls'-eyes. Although the number of hits were the same in 1907 as in 1906, yet this year To more rounds were fired in the time. This is again, for although the extra to shots did not find the target, yet if the object had been a battleship most of them would have struck and probably destroyed some upper-works, such as the funnel, the loss of which at once reduces a ship's speed by two or three knots per hour. Then in the case of the 6-inch guns, last year the Atlantic fleet fired 437 rounds and made 327 hits. This year there were 477 rounds fired, out of which 412 were hits and 343 were bulls'-eyes. This was a remarkable advance, although it must be remembered that there are a few more guns of 6-inch caliber in this year's than in last's Atlantic fleet. Still the percentage of hits is higher, and that is the crucial test.
The size of the target this year is smaller by three feet than it was last year, and only "bulls" count, and this fact makes the shooting even more satisfactory. The rate of loading and rapid firing shows a distinct step forward, and, moreover, gives the lie to those who declare that gunnery keenness in the navy is wearing down. What we want to see is this same spirit of emulation carried into night firing, and the results rise, at the same ratio of excellence as that of the day firing. The whole of the Channel fleet result is not to hand as we write, but the Channel fleet has a keen gunnery admiral as its commander-in-chief, and. no anxiety need be felt as to its final gunnery efficiency; while the China squadron has done better than for years past, especially with its light (or anti-torpedo) gun, which, as we have before pointed out, is a most important weapon. At one gun Petty Officer Nash made 14 hits with 14 rounds in one minute from a 12-pounder gun. This is a world's record. Altogether, therefore, the officers and men of the navy are to be congratulated on their competitive heavy-gun firing, so far as it has at present gone.. But the important test of battle practice has yet to come.—United Service Gazette.
In delivering the second of his two lectures upon "The Contest between Guns and Armor," at the Royal Institution, Sir William H. White, the late director of naval construction, traced the influence during the past half century of new theories and experience with guns and armor upon the design of battleships. The adoption of the central citadel system in naval construction, and its eventual supersession having been explained, Sir William remarked upon the changes in construction which had followed the use of high explosives and of quick-firing guns of larger caliber. In battle practice the 6-inch quick-firing gun had proved its superiority over the 12-inch gun in accuracy measured by percentage of hits. Recent naval experience had again proved that a ship might be demoralized, captured, or even sunk without her heavy armor being perforated. The perforative power of the 6-inch gun was, of course, lower than that of the larger weapon; but there were other matters to be considered, and there were many, among whom the lecturer declared himself on, who held that it was not desirable to depend exclusively upon guns of large caliber. The French naval authorities had decided in favor of this view, and the Russo-Japanese War had shown the immense damage that smaller guns could do.—United Service Gazette.
As a result of the inquiry into the recent disaster on the French warship Iena, an Admiralty order has been received at Pembroke dockyard directing the installation of a new system of ventilation in the magazines of all British warships, whether in commission or building. The new system provides for the keeping of the temperature of the magazines at all times below 70 degrees F., and the order directs that estimates are to be prepared for fitting the installation into all ships at Royal dock yards. Authority is given to employ additional hands if necessary for the purpose of carrying out the work. The alterations are to be regarded as urgent.—United Service Gazette.
CORMTE.—In the discussion that took place in the House of Commons on cordite, the question of its safety was very seriously debated. The powder adopted by our government consists of a mixture of gun-cotton and nitro-glycerine, in the proportions of 65 per cent of the former to 30 per cent of the latter, together with a little vaseline, and should contain no other ingredient whatever, with the exception of a trace of acetone, the solvent used in dissolving the nitro-cotton, due to insufficient drying. There is no chemical reason to add such a substance as chloride of mercury. Its addition can only, according to government views, be for the purpose of masking the heat test, and the proceeding is a "violation of the contract," as pointed out by Mr. E. Robertson. The addition of mercuric chloride to cordite would not of itself render the powder more dangerous, but the presumption is that it is only added to cordite that is in itself in a dangerous condition, i.e., the ingredients from which it has been manufactured, more especially the nitro-glycerine, and probably also the nitro-cellulose, have not been sufficiently purified. It is a well-known fact that in washing these substances very great care is necessary, and the process is a long and tedious one. Both the nitro-glycerine and the gun-cotton must stand a satisfactory "heat test" before they are mixed, and even when these tests are satisfactory it occasionally happens that the finished explosive will give a bad heat test.
The addition of mercuric chloride is not new. We remember hearing of its use some 18 years ago in connection with blasting gelatine. The government heat test was introduced by the late Sir F. Abel, and was originally used for testing the stability of the various forms of nitro-cellulose, especially gun-cotton. Briefly, the process is as follows: A known weight of the explosive is placed in a stout test tube 5 1/4 inches to 5 1/2 inches long, and of such a diameter that it will hold 20 to 22 cubic centimeters of water. It is fitted with an india-rubber stopper through which passes a narrow glass rod, terminating in a platinum wire hook, to hold the test paper. The test papers are narrow strips of special filter paper that have been treated with a solution of starch and potassium iodide. One of the pieces of filter paper thus prepared—10 mm. by 20 mm.—is fixed upon the platinum wire hook, the top of the paper is moistened with a weak solution of glycerine in water in such a way that the upper half is moist, and there is a distinct boundary line. The rod with the paper fixed upon the platinum hook is now placed in the mouth of the test tube, and the tube is then placed in a copper water bath, and the temperature raised until the thermometer fixed in the bath registers a temperature of 180 degrees F. Cordite under these circumstances must stand the test for at least 15 minutes. The test is finished when a faint brown line makes its appearance at the boundary line of the portion of the paper that has been moistened by the glycerine and water. The time and temperature varies with different explosives, such as gelatine dynamite, gun-cotton, Schultze powder, etc. The action of the chloride of mercury is to retard the reaction and to cause a sample of smokeless powder that, by reason of inefficient washing, will only give a heat test of perhaps 8 minutes to 10 minutes to stand for a much longer period of time than 15 minutes. The object of the test is therefore defeated, and the powder is made to appear very much superior as regards stability than it really is.
Cordite is chiefly manufactured at the Royal Gunpowder Factory at Waltham Abbey, but also at several private factories. As first manufactured, it consisted of gun-cotton 37 per cent, nitro-glycerine 58 per cent, and vaseline 5 per cent; but the modified cordite now made consists of 65 per cent gun-cotton, 30 per cent of nitro-glycerine, and 5 per cent of vaseline. As gun-cotton is not soluble in nitro-glycerine, it is necessary to use some solvent, such as acetone, in order to form the jelly with nitroglycerine. The dry gun-cotton and nitro-glycerine is placed in an incorporating tank, some of the acetone added, and after mixing, the rest of the ace tone is added-20 per cent in all—and the paste kneaded for three and a half hours. At the end of this time the vase line is added, and the kneading continued for a further three and a half hours. When the various ingredients are formed into a homogeneous mass, the mixture is taken to the press-house, where, in the form of a plastic mass, it is placed in cylindrical molds; the mold is inserted in a specially designed press, and the cordite paste forced through a die with one or more holes. The paste is pressed out by hydraulic pressure, and the long cord is wound on a metal drum, or cut into lengths; in either case the cordite is now sent to the drying houses, and dried at a temperature of about 100 degrees F. from three to fourteen days, the time varying with the size. This operation drives off the acetone and any moisture the cordite may still contain, and its diameter decreases somewhat.
In the case of the fine cordite such as rifle cordite, the next operation is blending. This process consists in mounting to of the metal drums on a reeling machine similar to those used for yarns, and winding the to cords on to one drum. This operation is known as "ten-stranding." Furthermore, six "ten-stranded" reels are afterwards wound on one, and the sixty-stranded reel is then ready to be sent away. This is done in order to obtain a uniform blending of the material. With cordite of a larger diameter, the cord is cut in to lengths of 12 inches.
Every lot of cordite from each manufacture has a consecutive number, numbers representing the size, and one or more initial letters to identify the manufacture. These regulations do not apply to the Royal Gunpowder Factory, Waltham Abbey. The finished cordite resembles a cord of gutta-percha, and its color varies from light to dark brown. It should not look black or shrivelled, and should always possess sufficient elasticity to return to its original form after slight bending.
With regard to the stability of well-made cordite there can be no doubt; climatic trials have been carried out all over the world, and they have so far proved eminently satisfactory. The Arctic cold of the winter in Canada with the temperature below zero, and the tropical sun of India, have as yet failed to shake the stability of the composition, or abnormally injure its shooting qualities. Stability tests should be carried out more frequently in a hot than in a temperate climate. A powder stored at 104 degrees F. should be tested ten times as frequently as one stored at 68 degrees F. to ensure an equal degree of safety. It is, however, absolutely essential that the powder should stand the heat test in a satisfactory manner. At Waltham Abbey and at some of the private factories, the nitro cellulose used in its manufacture is subjected to Wills' test, which is certainly more severe than the Abel test. In this test the nitro-cellulose is heated to a temperature of 135 degrees C., until decomposition takes place, the products of decomposition being removed and measured. The regularity with which the nitro-cellulose decomposes is a measure of its stability. With regard to nitro-glycerine, it is solely a question of efficient washing; this, however, is often a matter of some difficulty, and occasion- ally a charge of nitro-glycerine will give a great deal of trouble, and it is often necessary for the charge to be rewashed many times before it will pass the prescribed heat test. The cause of this difficulty is not always easy to discover; it may be due to the fact that the acids used in the nitrating were not clean, or they contained objectionable impurities, or frequently the quality of the glycerine used may be at fault. What ever the reason may be, it is a fact that it sometimes occurs, and there is no doubt that the addition of substances such as chloride of mercury have been used, with a view of masking the results. It has lately been pointed out that mercuric chloride combines with many nitro-compounds to form salts of an unstable nature; but the use of this salt in masking the Abel—potassium iodide and starch—test has been known for a great many years. In the future it will be necessary in carrying out the heat test on cordite, or any of the nitro-glycerine or nitro-cellulose explosives, to bear in mind the possibility of the presence of this substance. With regard to the question raised as to the mercury salt being added as an antiseptic, we never heard of the necessity for such a thing.—Engineer.
THE NEW POINTED BULLET.—The real interest of the Bisley meeting is connected with the performances of the pointed bullet, of which types are being introduced in Germany and France. It is well known that the War Office has been experimenting with a pointed bullet intended to replace the present blunt-nosed projectile. Two types have been presented respectively by Messrs. Kynoch and the King's Norton Metal Company. The present Service bullet is the result of experiments made many years ago, when it was accepted as a fact that the blunt head gave the best results as regards accuracy and resistance to the effects of the air. But a few months ago rumors became rife that bullets with a very pointed nose were beginning to be considered an improvement, and that trials were in hand by the War Office. The great difficulty is that a cartridge to be adopted in the immediate future must conform to the size and shape of the present cartridge in chamber space and length of projectile. If a new rifle were to be introduced, probably a larger chamber would be allowed for the cartridge, and possibly also a breech action capable of standing a greater pressure. There is also the consideration of the penetration and stopping power of the bullet. The War Office, in order to obtain the greatly increased muzzle velocity required, with the object of securing a flat trajectory, has had to take into consideration an increase of the powder charge. Ammunition manufacturers are experimenting, and have found the greatest difficulty in keeping within the necessary limits involved by the fact that ammunition has to stand great differences of climate. These difficulties do not appear to have been altogether overcome, but ultimately a cartridge may be introduced of the same length as the Service one, with a pointed bullet and a muzzle velocity of 2800 feet to 3000 feet per second, as opposed to the 2000 feet per second of the present form.
It was fully believed that the performance of the new bullet would open the eyes of the army as to its possibilities. On the first day of the meeting of the English Eight at Bisley a very strong wind was blowing, necessitating an allowance of some 30 points, but it was reported after the competition that the winner, Cap. J. H. Hardcastle, late R. A., had fired with a cartridge requiring some 15 to 20 points less elevation, and with a wind allowance of little more than half that required by everyone else. Capt. Hardcastle tells us that the bullet was designed by Kynoch, Limited, at their works at Birmingham, and that he was personally responsible for combining the pointed shape with the full weight of bullet. The next that was heard of this bullet was a wonderful shot made by Mr. Caldwell in Scotland, but with a barrel of .322-inch caliber instead of .303-inch. In the shooting for the Cambridge cup, at 900, 1000, and 1100 yards, Col. the Hon. T. F. Fremantle, who won the cup, used a pointed bullet and a .303- inch barrel, but with a specially long chamber. Further, on the second day, in the same competition, Col. Hopton used the pointed bullet, but with the ordinary-sized chamber, and, having once found the target, made extraordinary diagrams. Both these well-known rifle-shots and the one or two other competitors who also used this bullet fully confirmed the correctness of the claim advanced by the manufacturers—namely, that the bullet used, which weighed 220 grains and had a pointed nose, required not only very much less elevation, but also only about half the wind allowance. Capt. Hardcastle has for four years been working and experimenting, and is satisfied that the well-known theories of Bashford as to the shape of the nose of a bullet no longer apply. He contends that it is not the shape of the point or the curve of the shoulder, but the total length of the pointed part that has given the results, and he has been able to deduce the rule that the resistance of the air varies inversely as the square root of the length of the pointed head measured in calibers, so that, if the length is increased by 2 per cent, the resistance of the air is diminished by 1 per cent. Messrs. Kynoch are offering for sale three different bullet cartridges after this design:
Calibre. | Muzzle velocity. | Weight of bullet. | Weight of charge. | Maximum fixed sight range. |
| F.S. | Grains. | Grains. | Yards. |
.303 | 2.360 | 225 | 37 | 650 |
.375/.303 | 2.470 | 225 | 43 | 700 |
.322 | 2.430 | 250 | 43 | 620 |
They are loaded with "Axite," an explosive somewhat similar in appearance to the modified cordite known as M.D., but differing in essential particulars and containing special ingredients to increase the efficiency. It is claimed that these cartridges have a higher velocity, a flatter trajectory, greater power of retaining velocity over all ranges, increased maximum range, greater accuracy and less liability to be deflected by wind, and increased disabling power at all ranges.—Army and Navy Gazette.
THE EFFICACY OF THE POINTED BULLET.—The elongated bullet is not likely to find favor with the War Office, for it has the fatal fault of being too long to feed up from the magazine now in use.
Although this bullet only sprang into notoriety through its use at the recent Bisley meeting, the War Office had long had it under experiment, with a view to substituting it for the present Service bullet, and it is just possible that the undue prominence which is now being given to the subject in the columns of the dailies, may have influenced the War Office to arrive at a speedier decision than they would otherwise have done. Even then, their action in the matter has been rather belated, because more than two years ago what is practically the same bullet was adopted by the German government, in the Spitze--geschoss or “S” bullet, so called on account of its pointed shape. The German military authorities had previously been experimenting for some time with a view to increasing the muzzle velocity of their rifle to approximately 3000 feet per second, in order to ensure the flattest possible trajectory at decisive ranges, a consideration which they regard as of primary importance.
There were obvious objections to doing this by reducing the caliber of their rifle from 0.311 to 0.256 (or some smaller caliber), which would be the first method to suggest itself. Apart from the great cost involved in such a change, there are certain objections to a very small bore, and these are diminished wounding power and increased difficulty of cleaning and keeping in order the interior of the barrel. The alternative solution was to improve the ballistics of the existing rifle, by a suitable modification of its ammunition, and it appears that this has been effected partly by the adoption of a more powerful charge (whether a new powder is involved is not quite clear), but mainly by the adoption of a new bullet, and hence the genesis of the Spitze-geschoss or "S" bullet. This bullet weighs only 154.3 grains, as against the 227 grains of its predecessor, or as against the 215 grains of our Lee-Enfield bullet. The reduction of 73 grains weight, coupled with the higher pressure given by the new charge, has apparently raised the muzzle velocity of the German Mauser from about 2090 1.s. to about 2900 f.s. An additional and by no means unimportant advantage secured by the reduction in weight of the bullet is that about 15 per cent more ammunition can be carried than heretofore.
It is this latter consideration that ought to have weighed with our War Office, and, indeed, it was thought to be the one thing that would incline them to favor the adoption of the new "S" bullet. Moreover, the trajectory of this new bullet, firing at 12 inches above the ground, is not more than 5 feet 9 inches above it up to 700 yards' range, whereas with our bullet and rifle the range under these conditions is only 550 yards. Our heavy bullet is slightly more accurate beyond 1000 yards, but this does not appear a great advantage when compared with that of more ammunition. Yet although in this instance the War Office has decided against the new pointed bullet, as used at Bisley, it does not at all mean that they have abandoned their search for one more suitable, which will conform to the size and shape of the present one as regards chamber space and length of bullet. They hope eventually to get a cartridge of the same length as the present Service one, capable of feeding up through the magazine, and with a bullet of some 150 grains and a Muzzle velocity of 2800 feet to 3000 feet per second, as opposed to the 215 grains and the 2000 feet per second of the present form.
The greatest advantage given by the new "S" bullet of the German Army, in the matter of flatness of trajectory, is to be found between 500 and 800 yards. At 700 yards' range a man 5 feet 9 inches in height would, as we have shown, be hit anywhere along the range if the muzzle of the rifle were 12 inches from the ground, an effect our rifle could only produce at 550 yards. But there are two other points also affecting the military value of this bullet, and these are its wounding power and its penetrative effects. Taking the striking energy of the bullet as the measure of its wounding power, it would appear that the German pointed bullet is more effective than the Lee-Enfield up to between 900 and 1000 yards; but beyond that it is slightly inferior, although the difference is unimportant. In the matter of penetration the advantage certainly lies with the new bullet at all except extreme ranges.—United Service Gazette.
The "Elswick" separate vessel heater for torpedoes, to overcome the loss of heat due to the expansion of the air used in the propelling engines, is now being extensively applied to torpedoes at the Whitehead Torpedo Factory at Weymouth, and has given astonishingly successful results. In the case of the latest pattern 18-inch torpedo a speed of 28 knots for 2000 yards, or 34 1/2 knots for 1000 yards, is maintained when using the ordinary cold air. For longer distances, such as 3000 and 4000 yards, the speed, of course, is proportionately less, falling to about 20 knots for the 4000 yards range. When using the "Elswick" heater the same torpedo maintains a speed of over 40 knots for 1000 yards, 37 knots for 2000 yards, 30 knots for 3000 yards, and 27 knots for 4000 yards. These speeds are quite extraordinary, as they represent exactly 100 per cent more power from the engine; and when it is further pointed out that the "Elswick" heater is extremely small, simple, and burns any ordinary lamp-oil, and is capable of being fitted to practically any existing type of torpedo, the effects of it are such as cannot fail to command the serious attention of all countries using the Whitehead torpedo. The Admiralty have never been slow to adopt improvements in the torpedo armaments of the fleet. For years Great Britain has led in the matter of submerged tubes for firing torpedoes, and in all probability our fleet exercises more with torpedoes than that of any other country; consequently an improvement of the kind described is of more value to our navy than to any other. The general principles of the new heater are that the air is heated by burning with it oil-fuel after it has passed the usual reducing-valve. The reducing-valve is consequently a measure of the pressures produced by combustion, and automatically controls the air and fuel supply, thus making no difference in the evenness of the speed obtained when running cold, or hot, and producing, what has hitherto been lacking in all other forms of heating devices, a constant temperature irrespective of the quantity of air or fuel used. The whole apparatus adds only a few pounds weight to the torpedo, and is absolutely safe and simple to manipulate.-Engineering.
AN INTERESTING EXPERIMENT AT GAVRES.—The following experiments have been carried out at Givres to throw light upon the cause of the Jena accident.
A caisson was constructed, having the same shape and dimensions as the 10-cm. magazine which exploded on the Jena, and fitted with a similar ammunition hoist. In this structure were placed 270 10-cm. shell loaded with black powder, their B powder cartridges, and fifteen 10-cm. melinite shells; alongside of it, as on the Jena, was a black powder magazine, only instead of putting in the latter the large quantity of black powder which was in the Jena's magazine, small lots of this powder were placed where the time of their explosion could be noted by observers.
The object was to determine the effects which would be produced by setting fire to the B powder in one of the cartridge cases in a magazine; would the B powder simply burn up, without explosion and without causing a general conflagration in the magazine, or would it cause an explosion like that on the Jena?
The first part of the test was carried on in the open air and consisted of setting fire, by electricity, to cartridge cases loaded with B powder, having the point of inflammation sometimes at the front end of the cartridge and sometimes at its rear end near to the black powder ignition charge. Each time that a cartridge was lighted near its front end, the B powder simply burned. When the ignition was near the rear end, there was an explosion bursting the cartridge case.
In the second part of the test, when the structure above described was used, first a B powder cartridge situated near the upper part of the magazine was ignited at its forward end: it burned up without noise or any other result. Then another cartridge of B powder, in just the same position, was ignited, but this time at its rear end; a sharp explosion was heard, not very loud; then, after about to seconds, a sound like that of high pressure steam escaping from a boiler which has been damaged, increasing very rapidly and almost immediately accompanied by a great outburst of flame, through the ammunition passage principally; almost immediately after this shells began to burst in rapid succession, showing by their black smoke that they were melinite shells; then, for nearly two hours there were occasional explosions at varying intervals. Fourteen minutes elapsed after the setting fire to the first cartridge of B powder before the black powder in the adjoining magazine was fired.
On the Jena, it was at 1.40 p.m. that, through the decomposition of B powder, one of the cartridges loaded with that powder was spontaneously ignited, probably at its rear end where the ignition charge is placed, whence resulted a general inflammation of the ammunition, just as happened in the experiment; bursts of flame from the after part of the ship, successive explosions of the shells in the B powder magazine; then, about 10 minutes later, the great explosion due to the communication of fire to the black powder magazine.
A further proof that this is what actually took place on the Jena is that an examination of her wrecked magazines showed that the bulkhead separating the one containing B powder from the one containing black powder was covered, especially in its lower part, with the marks made by fragments of exploding shell which had struck it before it was blown down by the black powder explosion.
In the experiment, just as on the Jena, a number of the projectiles did not burst.—Moniteur de la Flotte.
The ordnance department of the army has been conducting at the Springfield armory comparative erosion tests of two samples of powder. The cartridges were loaded for 2700 feet per second muzzle velocity. The powders used were the pyro-cellulose sample No. 7,and regular .30 caliber composition No. 11 (nitro-glycerin). The velocity obtained with both powders at the beginning of the test was very low, but that may be partially accounted for by the fact that the firing was made immediately after the receipt of the powder when its temperature was considerably lower than in the subsequent firings. The pyro-cellulose powder showed up much better than the nitro-glycerin in regard to velocity, although the variations were somewhat greater. The star gauging showed that the rifle using the pyro-cellulose was much less eroded than the one using nitro-glycerin powder. It was regretted that the results of the accuracy of firing did not show any marked difference between the two powders, but may have been due to a bulge noticed when the firing had been brought up to 2000 rounds in the rifle using the pyro-cellulose powder. The test was duplicated with the two rifles from which were fired cartridges loaded for 2700 feet per second muzzle velocity regular nitro-glycerin composition, two using a special nitro-glycerin powder containing but 10 per cent of nitro-glycerin and two others firing pyro-cellulose powder. After 3500 rounds the tests with both the nito-glycerin compositions were discontinued. After 4500 rounds the pyro-cellulose powder had not appreciably eroded the two barrels from which they were fired. The special composition showed much less erosive effect than did the regular, and if a supply of cartridges had been on hand this rifle might have been fired perhaps 500 rounds more. At the end of 4500 rounds with the pyro-cellulose powder the firings were discontinued, due to lack of ammunition. It seems probable that the accuracy-life of a model of 1903 rifle using pyro-cellulose powder loaded for 2700 feet per second muzzle velocity will be in the neighborhood of 8000 rounds. Due to the excellent results obtained with this powder it will be adopted for the service, and as soon as a supply can be obtained the loading of model of 1906 cartridges will be commenced. A comparison of the above results with those obtained from previous firings was made. For this purpose an erosion test of the model of 1903 rifle, caliber .30 chambered for model of 1906 ammunition and having grooves deepened for 14 inches from muzzle, was made, 2600 feet per second model of 1906 ammunition used. The erosion after 2936 rounds near the bullet seat was much worse than with the pyro powder, and somewhat worse than with the nitro-glycerin.—Army and Navy Register.
GUN DEAFNESS IN THE NAVY.—That medical officers are not giving that close attention to the subject of gun deafness in the senior service which the subject deserves there is, unfortunately, ample evidence. There are signs, however, that a few naval surgeons, and also the Admiralty, are becoming aware of the alarming extent to which gun deafness at present prevails, and to which it is likely to increase in the near future if proper preventive measures are not at once adopted.
To keep the crews of our warships up to the present high standard of shooting efficiency it is necessary to expend a very large quantity of practice ammunition. Most of this ammunition is fired from the aiming rifles and small-bore guns of the navy, in order to combine economy with efficiency by making the smaller weapons do the same work in training hand, eye, and judgment, as could be achieved by firing larger guns with more expensive charges and projectiles. On many days of each quarter, therefore, the ears of the fleet men are constantly assailed with the snap of the Morris tube, the crack of the .303 rifle barrel, or the sharp ring of the three-pounder, six-pounder, or twelve-pounder gun, to say nothing of the "blast" of the havier guns when the regular practices are being carried out with all hands at their quarters, or with training classes firing their prescribed number of individual rounds. In .one way or another, therefore, the ears of the officers and men are subjected to a very trying ordeal in a modern man-of-war. It is an unfortunate fact that the smaller guns, which are mostly used for instructional practices, are likewise the weapons whose report does most damage to the ears. Of course if a man is standing within the field of "blast" when larger guns are fired, his hearing is sure to be seriously affected, although the guns' crews in the turrets and casemates have but slight shocks from the discharge of their own guns, the turret gun layers alone suffering to any extent from such discharges. But the peculiar ring from the small quick-firing guns, which sets up a singing noise in the ears, appears to have a wider area of harmful action, and as the crews of these guns are in the open when arranged around their guns, the ordeal of getting through a series of rounds is not a little trying, and undoubtedly has an injurious effect on the ears of the guns' crews, as well as of others who have to perform duties in close proximity to the spot where firing is being carried out.
The harmful results could, however, be considerably modified if those who are exposed to the shock of large or small gun-fire would take the simple precaution of plugging up their ears. But in the navy this act has always been regarded as a sign of effeminacy, and as such has been ridiculed and largely laughed down, sailors as a class being peculiarly sensitive to anything that is held to be taken effeminacy. Consequently, only the very morally courageous characters among the officers and men have had the good sense to preserve their hearing at the price of a few cheap sneers from their shipmates or gun mates. In a few cases only have officers of quarters actually forbidden the placing of cotton wool or oakum in the ears to protect them, although it has been largely discouraged by precept and example by all officers from the captain down to the midshipman.
The reason for this is obvious, for a man with his ears plugged would be thought by his superiors to be far less able to hear and quickly obey orders. But in nine cases out of ten this is a fallacy, for the men who may have not protected their ears are generally much less able to catch orders quickly between the rounds of firing (after three or four shots have been fired in rapid succession) than are the men who have protected their tympanums from numbness by placing effective plugs in their ears. The mistake is a very common one, and the majority of officers have yet to realize that the men should be encouraged to plug their ears, even if the voice has to be raised a little in giving them the necessary orders while firings are actually in progress.
It is to the interest of the navy and the nation that the hearing of our fleet men should be protected and kept as perfect as possible, so as to prevent failure in hearing orders, and obviate misunderstandings and mistakes that may arise from imperfect hearing. The prevalence of partial deafness in the navy is little short of alarming, and therefore its prevention should be taken in hand at once, for out of 50 men recently examined by a comparatively easy test, more than half of them were shown to be partially deaf, which state of affairs had, in all probability, been brought about by the firing from guns at which they had stood up as part of the crew.
The Admiralty are to be credited with the best of intentions, and they seem to be aware of the evil of gun deafness, for they have already taken steps to protect the ears of the guns' crews on board ship by means of "blast screens" composed of steel and india-rubber. But this is not enough. What we urge them to do is to go a step further, and see that ear-plugs are provided and used. The Japanese used ear-plugs right through their last campaign, and it is a good sign that the staff officers of our own naval gunnery schools, who superintend much gunnery practice, are adopting the cotton-wool plug, and thus setting their men a beneficial and necessary example in protecting the essential sense of quick-hearing which all naval gunners should possess.—United Service Gazette.
MARINE TURBINES AND GAS ENGINES.
LATEST RESULTS WITH MARINE TURBINES.—Because of the vast amount of experience which has been gained by the Parsons Company, as the pioneers and largest manufacturers of marine turbines, any statement made by the Hon. Charles Parsons as to the actual results obtained with this new form Of marine engine, is necessarily of great value. In a recent paper read by the inventor before the Institution of Civil Engineers, he has summarized results and answered several questions as to present efficiency and probable future developments of the marine turbine. The turbines at present in use may be comprised under three principal types: First, the compound type, which was first commercially applied in 1884, and comprises the Parsons, Rateau, and Zoelly. All of these adopt a line of flow of the steam generally parallel to the shaft. Mr. Parsons states that one chief object in his type of turbine has been to minimize the skin friction, by reducing the extent of moving surface in contact with the steam; another object has been to reduce the leakage by the adoption of a shaft of large diameter and great rigidity, so as to secure small working clearances over the tops of the blades. The second, or single-wheel type, of which the De Laval is the chief representative, has been used extensively on land for small and moderate powers; but, because of its high angular speed and the necessity of reduction gear on the screw shaft, it has received but little application for marine propulsion. The third, or sinuous-flow type, of which the Curtis turbine is the chief representative, ranks second to the Parsons in the extent of its use for marine purposes. It may be generally described as semi-compound, with a few stages of expansion, at each of which the De Laval expanding-jet principle is used. According to Mr. Parsons, the skin friction in the blades themselves, owing to the sinuous course at high velocity, is greater than in any of the varieties of the compound type.
The figures given of the total amount of horsepower installed in marine turbines show that the Parsons type has an almost exclusive command of the field, the total power at present in service being divided as follows: In pleasure steamers, 18,200; cross-channel steamers, 149,900; yachts, 18,100; ocean-going steamers, 91,900; and war vessels, 106,900; making a total of 385000 horsepower. The total power of marine turbines of the Curtis, Rateau, and other types, completed, is about 16,000 horsepower.
On the important question of consumption of coal in turbine vessels, Mr. Parsons states that, in fast pleasure steamers and cross-channel boats, the economy has been found to be from 5 to 15 per cent superior to that of similar vessels equipped with triple-expansion-reciprocating engines, and about 25 per cent superior to that of vessels propelled with compound paddle engines. To this advantage must be added others, such as the saving in cubical space, reduced consumption of oils and stores, and reduced work for the engine-room staff. It is well known that there is a critical speed of ship, below which the economical advantage of the turbine disappears. We are informed in this paper that for speeds down to about 16 knots, turbines have been found equal or superior, in economy to reciprocating engines; and in some cases, where large and comparatively costly turbines have been fitted, as in the case of yachts, this advantage is maintained down to speeds of about 12 to 15 knots.
A noteworthy admission by Mr. Parsons is that the solution of the problem for slow vessels lies in a combination of reciprocating engines and tur Wiles; the reciprocating engines dealing with the high pressure of the expansion, and the turbines with the low pressure. He estimates that a combination of this kind, used in an intermediate liner of is knots speed, will effect the saving of 12 per cent in fuel over the best quadruple-expansion engines, and that there will be a reduction of total weights. In a large vessel of 10 to 12 knots speed the dual motive power would show a saving of 15 to 20 per cent in fuel over the best triple-expansion reciprocating engines; and, although in some cases the first cost will be greater, it is estimated that, because of the increased earning power of the vessel, the excess will be recovered in less than three years. In the larger vessels, however, there will be little or no increase in the capital cost—Scientific American.
With a view to obtaining all the advantages of a great range of expansion and a high vacuum, which are marked characteristics of the turbine, the White Star Company has placed an order with Messrs. Harland & Wolff to build the first of two large steamers for the transatlantic trade, which are to be driven by a combined reciprocating and turbine engine plant. Power will be developed on three shafts, the outer two of which will be driven by quadruple-expansion reciprocating engines, and the central shaft by a low-pressure turbine, operated by the exhaust steam from the low-pressure cylinder of the reciprocating engines. For going astern the reciprocating engines will be used, while in ordinary service all three engines will be driven in combination.
Further advantages of this installation are that there will be separate steam connections from the boiler room to each of the three engines, so that in case of disablement, the vessel can be driven under the reciprocating engines or even by one of them alone, or by the steam turbine alone, live steam in this last case being fed direct to the turbine. The range of expansion will be increased, since it will be possible to use a higher pressure steam in the reciprocating engines than is found to be economical for steam turbines; while, on the other hand, the turbine end of the expansion can be carried down very much lower and with a higher vacuum than is possible in the reciprocating engine alone.—Scientific American.
Those persons who have recently been writing about defects in the machinery of the Dreadnought because that vessel has been undergoing a series of trials with different propellers will do well to study the discussion which took place at the Conference of Civil Engineers on the subject of turbines versus reciprocating engines for marine work. Papers were read on these subjects by Mr. C. A. Parsons and Mr. Henry Davey, the former dealing with turbines as applied to marine propulsion, and the latter with the advantages of the reciprocating engine for ocean-going steamers. In the course of the discussion Sir William White said that on land the turbine had at maximum power shown itself to be more economical in steam than the best type of marine piston engine, and he believed these advantages would hold good in the case of the marine turbine, concerning which he had information which he was not at liberty to make public. There appears to be generally a decided opinion in favor of the turbine, certainly for high-speed vessels, but for vessels in which a moderate speed only is required it seems probable that some combination of piston engine and turbine may prove to be the most economical arrangement. On the other hand, there is evidently considerable difference of opinion as to the form of screw propeller to be used with the high-speed turbines. Sir William White, referring to the statement that the turbine called for the use of a less efficient screw than did the reciprocating engine, said it had to be remembered that the turbine-driven propeller was in its infancy, and some allowance should be made for the comparatively small experience with turbine-driven screws. It must be recalled that for over half a century various types of propellers have been tried with reciprocating engines, and yet engineers differ as to which design is the best; the marine turbine has hardly been under trial for a fifth of that time, it can surprise none, therefore, if there should exist a desire to try several kinds of screw propellers in the hope that with the experience thus gained the most efficient type may be discovered.—Army and Navy Gazette.
TURBINE STEAMERS FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN.—The Fairfield Co., at Glasgow, has recently launched the first of two high-speed turbine steamers being built for the Egyptian Mail Steamship Co., and intended to inaugurate, in the late autumn, a new express service between Marseilles and Alexandria. These new ships, named Heliopolis and Cairo, are of great size, equalling the largest of the Atlantic liners of a few years ago. Their length over all is 543 feet; their breadth, 60 feet 3 inches; and their depth, from keel to shelter deck, 38 feet. The tonnage is 12,000 tons. The machinery, which is of the Parsons turbine type, will develop 18,000 horsepower when three turbines and three propellers are running at 340 revolutions per minute. This is to give the speed of 21 knots already referred to. The hull is divided by water-tight bulkheads into ten compartments, and there are seven decks.—Nautical Gazette.
THE MARINE STEAM TURBINE.—It is reported that in the early days of the Royal Society, King Charles II posed the Fellows with the conundrum as to why the addition of a live fish to a bowl of water caused no increase in the total weight of this bowl and its contents. The interesting problem thus submitted is said to have given rise to animated debate, various explanations being proffered. Had not the society been the corporate representative of the "new philosophy," the discussion might have continued as learnedly and indefinitely as that of the mediaeval schoolmen on the equally nice point as to the number of angels which could find accommodation on the point of a needle. Appeal to experiment, however, being the essence of the "new philosophy," it was gravely decided to submit the supposed phenomenon to actual test, with the natural result of establishing its non-existence. We are reminded of this historic incident by the numerous explanations which have been advanced to account for the presumed fact that turbine steamers lose speed in a seaway to a greater extent than ships fitted with reciprocating engines. Quite plausible reasons can be found as to why turbine steamers should labor under this disadvantage; but, after all, it is well to be certain that they really do so before much time and energy are expended in divining a sufficient cause for the presumed disability.
Unfortunately, the general engineering public cannot submit the point in question so easily to the test of experiment as in the case cited above, since commercial considerations have led to great reticence, both in the case of builders and owners, as to the actual results obtained with turbine boats on service. Undoubtedly, however, the wide spread conviction as to the inferiority of the turbine steamer in this regard has originated in the talk of the navigating and engineering staffs of these vessels, and it is difficult, therefore, to believe that it is entirely without foundation.
On the other hand, Mr. R. J. Walker, in replying to the discussion on his recent paper presented to the Northeast Coast Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders, was able to show that in some instances, at any rate, the turbine-boats have exhibited a remarkable superiority to their rivals, in the very point under discussion. Last winter, he states, the twin-screw Channel steamer Sussex was, owing to stress of weather, unable to leave Dieppe till about 12 hours after her proper time. Two and a half hours after she had started, the Brighton, which is a turbine steamer, also left Dieppe, and her passengers caught the same train to London as those of the Sussex. It appears, in fact, that no matter what the severity of the weather, the turbines do not require to be eased, and are not eased save on direct orders from the bridge, dictated by the necessities of the ship, and not those of the engine-room. On the other hand, as is well known, it is necessary to slow down, and stand by, with reciprocating engines in very bad weather, or they might be wrecked by the racing of the propeller. Possibly an explanation of the contradictory reports which are prevalent in this regard may be found in the turbine being superior in really heavy weather, but losing speed as compared with its rival in more moderate seas.
Another factor in the question which may be at least partially responsible for the prevalent opinion is that in service the turbine-boats never show the same superiority over sister vessels in the matter of fuel economy as they have done on trial. The principal reason for this would appear to lie in the circumstance that at full speed reciprocating engines are being over-driven, while in the case of every turbine ship, of which data have been published, it is obvious that even at full speed the turbine is still far from exerting its maximum power, and could easily dispose of more steam if it were forthcoming from the boilers. Further, as marine turbines are always under-speeded, the faster the ship travels the more economical does the turbine become, so that on trial it is working at its best efficiency, while the reverse is the case with the reciprocating engine. The full advantage is never obtained from running the turbine more nearly at its correct speed, independently of propeller considerations. It is certainly possible to maintain it at its full speed of revolution, however bad the weather, as emphasized by the Hon. C. A. Parsons before the Institution of Naval Architects at Bordeaux in June, 1907, but if it should exceed this speed by a small margin, the automatic cut-out would come into action, an occurrence which never happens in service. Hence this source of efficiency is eliminated, and the full effect of the over-speeding of the screw due to the greater slowness of the ship is felt on the steam consumption.
At the Engineering Conference Prof. Biles stated that in smooth-water trials the Midland Railway Company's turbine boats showed an economy of 15 per cent in steam consumption, as compared with the sister vessels with reciprocating engines, although no difference appeared in actual service. His explanation was that the extra revolutions demanded to maintain speed in rough water loaded the screws beyond the cavitating point With the large screws of reciprocating engines this effect did not occur, and if turbine vessels were fitted with larger screws, although the trial-trip efficiency might be reduced, better results would be obtainable in every-day work. If this view be correct, and the propeller losses increase so much more rapidly than the efficiency of the turbine increases, for the same speed of the vessel, it certainly seems that the propellers are worked too near their limits of thrust. Sir William White pointed out that falling-off of speed had also happened with reciprocating engines; but the cases are not strictly comparable, as we have pointed out above. As regards efficiency, it is stated that H. M. turbine cruiser Amethyst is doing better than her sister ship the Topaz, with reciprocating engines, and she certainly gave better trial results; but, on the other hand, the German turbine cruiser Lubeck has proved consistently worse than the Hamburg. It is said, however, that other factors enter into this last comparison.
The extent to which ships have been "over-turbined" has been very remarkable. In the case of the Dreadnought, the official figures show that her turbines could easily develop 20 to 25 per cent more power than that obtained in the nominal full-power trial, and still have the inlet pressure not higher than it would be in the steam-chest of a reciprocating engine working with the same boiler-pressure. In the navy, since the introduction of water-tube boilers it has been usual to generate steam at, say, 250 pounds pressure, and reduce this to 200 pounds at the engines, a reserve thus being provided, which greatly facilitates station-keeping. In the Dreadnought, however, the reduction was nearer 100 pounds than 50 Pounds, and, as Mr. Griffith stated at the conference, the torque on the shafting is nearly proportional to the inlet pressure of the turbines. That the practice of "over-turbining" is not confined to the navy would seem to be borne out by the statement, recently published, that at the late overhaul of the Carinania an attempt was made to reduce the steam-way through the turbine by twisting the blades to a more acute angle. This expedient might work fairly well in the case of an electric-light turbine, which is usually not greatly under-speeded, but seems somewhat questionable when applied to the conditions of marine practice, as it must materially increase the losses by shock.
We are unaware as to the considerations which have led in so many cases to the provision of turbines so far in excess of the actual requirements of the ships to which they have been fitted. Partially, perhaps, the practice has originated in the methods used for proportioning the turbines, which are understood to be largely of "the rule-of-thumb character." This belief finds confirmation in Mr. Gerald Stoney's statement at the Engineering Conference—that an efficiency ratio of 78 per cent was attained in the recent test at Carville Power Station, particulars of which were published in Engineering, May 17 last, page 654 ante. From the data given it is obvious that the figure stated has been obtained in a purely empirical fashion, the actual efficiency rated being certainly under 70 per cent.
Perhaps one of the most important pronouncements made in the recent conference was that in which Sir W. H. White expressed his belief in the ultimate discovery of an efficient form of high-speed screw-propeller. His unrivaled experience gives him a right to express an authoritative opinion on this matter, and we sincerely trust that he is not unduly sanguine. The day which witnesses the development of a propeller capable of efficiently developing a large thrust at a really high speed of revolution renders obsolete the ordinary marine engine. In the case stated it would not survive even in the modified arrangement now proposed for slow-speed vessels, in which an exhaust-steam turbine is to take the place of the low-pressure cylinder. As matters stand, this proposal yields promise of a very substantial fuel economy, but we fear it will, in spite of its merits in this regard, be deemed by many as a somewhat inartistic makeshift.
For larger and faster vessels superheated steam may ultimately come into general use. The fact that for a given pressure the volume of the steam is very substantially increased has some advantages from the theoretical standpoint, since longer blades would be in order at the high-pressure end, thus reducing the ratio of the clearance to the height of the blades. It is generally understood, however, that in practice this has not hitherto proved possible, and that, on the contrary, the use of highly super-heated steam has necessitated an increase of clearance, so as to avoid the risk of the blades fouling the casing through unequal expansion. If the superheat could be maintained with sufficient steadiness, this necessity would not arise; but as matters stand, many "strips" have arisen solely from a too sudden change in the temperature of the supply of superheated steam. On land such "strips" are annoying, but involve little danger; but at sea conditions are different, and Mr. Parsons' reluctance to sanction the use of superheated steam there is accordingly very easily intelligible.— Engineering.
THE TRIALS OF THE LUSITANIA.—The Cunard liner Lusitania has met the most sanguine anticipations of all concerned. At a draft of 30 feet she has steamed over 26 knots on the measured mile; on a 48 hours' sea run on long measured distances she has maintained a mean speed of 25.4 knots. The contract anticipated a speed of 24 1/2 knots on the round voyage on the Atlantic, and this will be easily achieved.
Justification for this view is found in the fact that the long-distance trial represented exactly the conditions of the Atlantic voyage. The unprecedented length of the trial precluded "jockeying." The course of about 300 miles was traversed four times in alternate directions, so as to eliminate the influence of tide and weather. It is unnecessary to say that the machinery worked satisfactorily. The general result stated carries conviction from this point of view. Before entering upon this, the most cru cial test, the Lusitania had made several preliminary trials on the Clyde measured mile, not only to tune up the turbine machinery, but to standardize the relation between revolutions, power, and speed, so that a series of trials could be made to determine the coal consumption at various speeds. These economy tests began when the Lusitania left the Clyde for a cruise around Ireland. The vessel was loaded to a draft of 32 feet 9 inches, equal to a displacement of 37,000 tons, and on the cruise the water and coal consumptions were taken while the vessel ran for six hours at speeds of 15, 18, and 21 knots respectively. The results were thoroughly satisfactory, but the data obtained were in connection with service requirements rather than scientific purposes.
The guests having been transferred to the tender at the Mersey Bar, the more exacting tests were entered upon, water and coal consumption data at 23 and 25 knots being taken. On the run to the Firth of Clyde, the starting-point of the full sea-speed trials, the course measured out on the chart was between the Corsewall Light on the Wigtownshire Coast to the Longship Lighthouse at Lands End, and this had to be traversed four times, alternately north and south. The compass bearings gave the distance, which aggregated about 1200 miles; the trial began at midnight on Monday, and ended about i o'clock on Thursday morning. The weather was favorable, with cloudless days and starlight nights; but on both nights northwest winds freshened to forces of six and eight, and although this occurred when the vessel was steaming north, and somewhat increased resistance and slightly reduced speed, it brought consolation in the fact that it prevented fog. The feature of the trial was the uniformity of the speed on both runs south and on the two runs north, the latter being against the wind and tide. The course, as a glance at the chart would show, was divided into three approximately equal parts by the Fodling and Tuskar lights. Compass-bearings taken at these intermediate points proved the uniform rate of steaming. The time taken on the runs south differed by only two minutes; further proof is unnecessary of the great regularity of steam-supply or of turbine efficiency. The speed on four runs was: South from Corsewall, 26.4 knots; north, from Longship, 24.3 knots; south, from Corsewall, 26.3 knots; north from Longship, 24.6 knots; mean speed, 25.4 knots.
This is a great performance; it exceeds by two nautical miles per hour any similarly long run made. The truest significance lies in the uninterrupted mechanical precision with which every unit of the machinery worked. The air pressure in the ash pits of the boilers did not at any time reach the maximum of Yi inch prescribed in the specification by the Cunard Com- pany. The boiler pressure averaged 186 pounds per square inch, while the pressure at the receiver of the high-pressure turbines varied little from 150 pounds; at the low-pressure receiver it was 3 1/2 pounds. The mean vacuum was 28.2 inches, with an average barometric reading of 29.8 inches. The mean revolutions of the four shafts were 188 per minute, and the power, according to the torsion meter, was 64,600 horsepower. To those not versed in the details of steam-turbine performances the fact is illuminative. The circumferential or tip velocity of the rotors of the low-pressure turbines was 150 feet per second, equal to over 9000 feet per minute. The general procedure in the machinery department accorded with Atlantic practice, and Tuesday's and Wednesday's performance might to all intents and purposes have been two days running, each equal to over 600 miles, on a voyage to New York. This will certainly be the condition a month or six weeks hence. On returning to the Clyde the vessel proceeded on shorter distance tests, while following this were progressive runs on the measured mile; these ranged up to 26 knots.
The steering qualities of the vessel have also been tested. When steaming at 15 knots the rudder was put from amidships to hard over, both to port and starboard, in 15 seconds, and the full circle was completed in 8 minutes. Immediately before commencing to turn, the engines were running at the rate of revolution which gave 15 knots. A careful record of
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revolutions was made on a time basis during the evolution, and it was found at the completion of the circle that the rate of revolution was then 70 percent of the rate at 15 knots. The final speed was thus assumed as 10.5 knots, the average speed 13 knots, and the diameter of the circle about 1100 yards. This for a ship of this great length is a most satisfactory performance; the ship, at 22 knots, made the complete circle in 7 1/2 minutes, with 15 degrees of helm.— In ordinary steering the ship answered her helm very rapidly, according to the testimony of the pilot, and her swing was easily checked. Although the weather was very fine, alike on the 36 hours' run around Ireland and on the 48 hours' trial on the deep-sea course, there was sufficient swell on the Atlantic in the first-named trip, and between the Tuskar and the Longship Lights on the subsequent runs, to cause pitching and rolling motions to be perceptible. The period of a single roll from side to side was 10 seconds, and of a pitch four seconds.—Engineering.
THE PROSPECTS FOR LARGE MARINE GAS ENGINES.—Confidence in the probable use of internal combustion engines for propelling large vessels is not shared by all. An eminent English marine engineer, Francis E. Elgar in a paper read recently at the Engineering Conference held at the Institution of Civil Engineers, London, was extremely skeptical that such applications would be made, at least for sometime to come. His paper included a recapitulation of the characteristics of efficiency, safety, and economy, which must be developed and united in this type of engine before it can be successful in marine use on a large scale. His summary, which is worthy of careful consideration, follows:
1. The engine must be reversible.
2. It must be capable of being quickly stopped and started, either ahead or astern.
3. It must be capable of being promptly accelerated to any speed between dead, slow, and full speed, and of being kept steadily at the required speed for any length of time. "Dead slow" ought not to be faster than one-quarter of full speed, and should be less in very fast vessels
4. It must be capable of running continuously for long distances, with but short intervals between the runs, without risk of stoppage and breakdown.
5. It must be capable of working well in rough as well as smooth water, or in a seaway in which the variable immersion of the propeller causes fluctuating resistance.
6. All working parts must be readily accessible for overhauling, and all working parts must be capable of being promptly and easily adjusted.
7. The engine must be economical in fuel, especially at its ordinary working speed.
8. It must be compact, light in weight, and well balanced, so as not to cause vibration.
9. It must not involve any risk of accumulation of gas in the ship, such as to form an explosive mixture.
10. Above all, it must be capable of using a fuel whose supply at moderate price is practically unlimited and can be readily obtained in any part of the world a ship might visit.
Referring to published plans for installing gas and oil machinery in 16,000-ton battleships, Mr. Elgar maintains that this exists at present in imagination only." It is impossible," he continues, "for anyone to judge by what has been achieved up to the present in this direction, what weight or space, or what consumption of fuel would be required for the internal combustion engines of greater power, that might, perhaps, ultimately be made to fulfill the onerous requirements of marine work. Engineers and metallurgists may, by working together, succeed some day in overcoming the difficulties of producing large cylinders which will stand the high impulses and great and rapid variations of temperature that occur with internal combustion, but until this is accomplished no great step ahead has been taken."
There are those who will be inclined to consider this view extreme. Many installations of large internal combustion engines have been successful ashore. It is natural to be credulous that in the future engineers may solve the problems of any new branch of engineering. Many times in the past a few years has sufficed to contradict the most distinguished disbelievers.
Another paper read at the conference told of the progress made with the marine steam turbine, which has grown in its application from the tiny Turbinia of 1894 to the gigantic Lusitania and Dreadnought of to-day. A curve showing the total horsepower of steam turbines applied to marine propulsion has its beginning at zero in 1896, and its end at 390,000 horsepowers in 1906. It is doubtful if many engineers at the advent of the Turbina expected a turbine propelled Lusitania within 10 years. Repeated instances of the sort have bred a confidence in the world's engineering genius, that warrants hope for great ships propelled by combustion engines, in the comparatively near future, and cheaply, perhaps with crude oil, perhaps with alcohol or other clean fuel—Iron Age.
EFFICIENCIES OF STEAM AND GAS POWER PLANTS ON THE RAND.—This interesting diagram was presented by Mr. Kenneth Austin at a recent meeting of the Transvaal Institute of Mechanical Engineers. The top diagram on the left shows the efficiency of the best boiler plant. Beneath are shown the best percentage values obtained in marine practice with multiple cylinder and turbine engines. On the right are gas producer and gas engine computations.
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WORKING EXPERIENCES WITH LARGE GAS-ENGINES. By Cecil A. St. George Moore.—The production of power by the use of large gas-engines has developed at a remarkable rate during the last few years, and much has been written on the subject.
The present paper has been written to show some of the defects which have presented themselves in actual work, and by what means and to what extent they have been overcome.
No one type of engine has yet proved itself superior to all others. The engines built on the Continent can be classed under three main heads—viz.: (1) the double-acting four-cycle type, generally made in large sizes with tandem cylinders;(2) the Oechelhafiser type; and (3) the Korting type. The value of positive scavenging in engines of the four-cycle type is still regarded as an open question. In most of the large Continental engines no scavenging is attempted, it being presumably thought that the results obtained are not worth the extra complication. Theoretically, it seems, however, that if the clearance space is full of pure air at the commencement of the suction stroke, a stronger mixture might be drawn in, and consequently an increase of power might be obtained with an engine of the scavenging type, as the air already in the cylinder would serve for the combustion of the extra gas drawn in.
The governing of gas-engines of the four-cycle type has received very careful attention from Continental engineers. The hit-and-miss method, which has been the universal practice for small engines, is satisfactory in sizes up to 2000 horsepower for driving direct-current dynamos. For driving alternators and other work where a steady turning moment is necessary, the plan most usually adopted is to provide a varying cut-off for the gas on the suction stroke, the gas and air valves opening together at commencement of stroke, the gas-valve closing at a variable point determined by the governor, and the air-valve remaining open until the end of the stroke. Another method of governing is to cut off the gas and air together at a varying point on the suction stroke, thus giving a mixture of constant proportions but variable quantity. At light loads, when the cut off is early, the pressure in the cylinder at the end of the suction stroke falls very much below atmospheric, and in order to prevent the valves being opened by the atmospheric pressure outside, a positive mechanism must be provided for keeping them closed.
There has been much to learn with regard to the design of the piston for engines of the Korting type. Owing to its great length and weight, it is difficult to make it a satisfactory and reliable job. If the engine is not fitted with a tail rod, the piston is generally a plain cylindrical casting.
With the heavy pistons used on the Korting engine, it is a very good thing to have the bottom shod with white metal, which takes up the wear, and which can be renewed from time to time; otherwise, if the whole weight of the piston rests on the bottom of the cylinder, the wear of the latter will be very great. The white metal should stand out about 1 mm. from the body of the piston. If the engine is fitted with a tail rod, the rod should either be continuous right through the piston, or the two rods should be bolted rigidly together. In no case should the cast-iron piston block be used as a connecting link between the two rods.
It is now the fairly universal practice to fit large double-acting engines with tail rods, but it is still an open question whether it is expedient to camber the rods so that the whole weight of the piston is taken by the guides. If no cambering of the rods is attempted, it is doubtful whether a tail rod is of any great advantage, at any rate for engines of less than 500 horsepower, and it is the author's experience that an engine of the Korting type will run quite well without one, provided that the piston is properly shod with white metal. The addition of a second stuffing box counteracts to a great extent the advantages of a tail rod.
The production of a good metallic packing forms one of the most difficult problems in gas-engine work. Cast iron has been found by experience to be, on the whole, the most satisfactory material, though it is very important that it should be very soft, and that the rings should be given very little spring on the rod, otherwise excessive wear will result. With an 8-inch rod it is quite enough if the rings are bored out 1/64 inch less than the diameter of the rod. In this case, after running about a month one or two of the rings nearest the cylinder will have become just slack on the rod, but these can easily be renewed. The most satisfactory form of ring is rectangular in section, and should not be too narrow. This should be surrounded by an L-shaped solid ring, which is made an accurate fit inside the packing box. The box should contain eight or ten of these double rings which should be held up to their work by spiral springs, acting parallel with the rod. White-metal V-shaped rings may be used with advantage at the outside end of the packing, well away from the hot end. They should preferably be put in a separate box fitting inside the main packing box.
The correct timing of the ignition is a very important factor in the running of a gas-engine, if economical working is to be maintained. An arrangement for altering the timing while the engine is running should always be provided, and this should be calibrated with the help of indicator diagrams. The timing should be so set that the explosion line is vertical, not leaning back. Repeated experiments have shown that the maximum Power is obtained with a vertical explosion line, the extra pressure thus gained during the early part of the stroke more than making up for the lower expansion curve.
One of the most persistent troubles which users of large gas-engines have to contend with is the liability to pre-ignition. Pre-ignitions are not in themselves dangerous provided they keep within limits. Pre-ignitions of the ordinary type are evidently caused by overheating of something inside the cylinder. If the piston rings are broken, and hot gas is blowing past the piston, the latter becomes overheated at the edge, causing Pre-ignition. Pre-ignitions may also be caused by firing past the rings from one side of the piston to the other if the former are in bad order.
No installation of large gas-engines is complete without some means for Utilizing the heat carried away by the exhaust. The most satisfactory way of doing this is to pass the exhaust through a boiler. The steam generated may be used for a variety of purposes, such as supplying the producers, heating, running a small steam engine, etc.
The relative advantages of producer gas as compared with blast-furnace gas for use in large engines have been much discussed. The author's experience is that Mond gas is quite satisfactory for large engines, if reasonable care is taken in its use. The gas must be thoroughly cleansed, otherwise trouble is bound to ensue, owing to the valves of the engines sticking. Mond gas contains an enormous amount of tar, which is very difficult to get rid of. Some kind of washing arrangement and two sawdust scrubbers in series are absolutely necessary. For washing purposes an old Lancashire boiler set vertically is useful. This should be packed with ring tiles, and the gas should pass upwards through it, water meanwhile dripping downwards over the tile and being carried away by a drain through a water seal at the bottom. This process, besides extracting a certain amount of tar from the gas, also cools it very effectively.
Even when the gas is in this condition, after a very short time the gas- valve and mixing chamber of a four-stroke engine,or the gas piston valve of a Korting engine, will become thickly coated with tar, and a thorough Cleaning of these will be necessary about once a fortnight. The author has suggested that after cooling the gas to atmospheric temperature it should be heated again before being taken to the engine This heating would make up for the fall in temperature during the suction stroke, and hence the deposition of tar would probably be avoided, and it would be carried over to the cylinder and there burnt. It has been frequently de- bated whether a gas containing a comparatively large percentage of hydro- gen is suitable for large engines. A point which is often overlooked is that the temperature of combustion of hydrogen is considerably lower than that of carbonic oxide; hence an engine running on Mond gas should, theoretically, keep cooler than one running on blast furnace gas. Against this we have to set the fact that hydrogen ignites at a lower temperature, and hence there is more liability to pre-ignition. The following is an average analysis of Mond gas:
CO2 | 16.4% |
| H | 26.6% |
O | 0.2% |
| CH4 | 2.7% |
CO | 11.4% |
| N | 42.7% |
Calorific value (higher scale) 159.4 B. T. U. per cubic foot.
If the load on a producer-gas plant is suddenly largely reduced, gas of a very high value is given off for a short time, and this will cause violent pre-ignition, generally resulting in the engines pulling themselves up entirely. If, however, the driver is prepared, and, as soon as he sees the load begin to go up, keeps it steady by partly shutting off the gas at the stop valve, the temporary rise in value of the gas can be tided over without any trouble. This helps to explain the fact that large engines can be successfully run on coke-oven gas, provided that it is sufficiently diluted. An average sample of coke-oven gas gives the following analysis:
CO2 | 5.0% |
| H | 41.8% |
O | 0.6% |
| CH4 | 33.3% |
CO | 5.6% |
| N | 13.7% |
Calorific value (higher scale) 517 B. T. U. per cubic foot.—Tcchnical Literature.
RADIO TELEGRAPHY.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.—After running rap- idly over the early and important steps in the development of wireless telegraphy, Dr. Lee DeForest takes up in greater detail the more recent devices and improvements which have advanced this art. Among these devices are the electrolytic responder or "polariphone," the electrothermic receivers such as silicon and psilomelane, and the vapor receiver or "audion." The latter device is exceedingly reliable, and has excellent tuning qualities. The silicon receiver is interesting, since it does not require a local battery, the thermoelectric action set up by the received waves being sufficient to operate a telephone or other signalling device. The transmitting part of the problem has not made such satisfactory progress; in fact, but little has been done to explain the way in which the electrical waves are set up and radiated. Duddell and Taylor conducted some important investigations in this direction, but almost no progress has been made toward actually plotting the fields of force of these waves. However, it seems pretty well established that the energy of the electromagnetic wave varies inversely between the first and second power of its distance from the source. The wave therefore must not expand as the surface of a hemisphere, but of a hemisphere very much flattened. Many observed paradoxes are made clear by this theory, but there are a great many data to be collected and costly experiments to be made before the complete theory of overhead transmission and of varying conditions can be confirmed. One great desideratum is the discovery of a method whereby the propagation can be limited to any desired direction. Hertz's parabolic reflector is a clear solution, but only for waves of high frequency. The horizontal wave chute or artificial ground net is unable to solve the problem. Braun's work with several vertical transmitting antenna is promising, but the accuracy demanded by this method has prevented its successful operation. The use of horizontal antenna near the earth's surface is limited, because of the less distance attained than with the same length of vertical antenna. A compromise, in which an oblique antenna is employed, has given some valuable results. This phase of the problem is important, for it was found by the author in 1902 that a group of telegraph wires acts as a wave chute to confine a large amount of the radiated energy to a zone coaxial with such lines. In virtue of this effect, surprisingly long distances in transmitting wireless signals to trains have been attained. The author believes that this phenomenon offers to railway companies a means of keeping up their telegraphic service, even when the wires have been blown down by a storm. Another great problem is that of selectivity or syntonization. Here the value of the so-called loose coupling between oscillating and radiating systems is recognized. The best-known circuits accomplishing this to-day are embraced in the Stone system, which prevent interference if the frequency differs but one percent. This degree of selectivity is ample for commercial requirements, but no matter how loosely coupled an oscillating system and its antenna circuit may be, the trains of waves sent out through any oscillator utilizing the ordinary spark discharge are too rapidly damped to allow the full benefits of the system to be attained. To overcome this, continuous oscillations must be set up and perhaps the most promising work in this direction is that started by Duddell with the singing arc, and improved later by Poulsen, who enclosed the arc in a neutral atmosphere. The author then points out that, given a continuous radiation of undamped waves or a radiation of undamped wave-trains in groups whose frequency is above the audible limit, or at least above the frequency of the more essential tones used in human speech, wireless telephony over commercial distances is comparatively easy of realization. The receiver for this system is already satisfactory, as those at present in use reproduce every change in the character of the spark now employed in transmitting wireless telegraphic messages. The author points out that for the transmission of radio-telegraph signals the medium required is ether at rest: that for radio-telephonic signals the medium should be ether in a continuous state of vibration. To vary the state of normal disturbances in the ether it suffices to vary the intensity of the spark itself, which is the origin of this disturbance; or to vary the intensity of the high-frequency currents. At the point of attachment to the earth these currents are greatest the potentials are least, and this point is therefore the most sensitive and effective place in which to insert the intensity-governing device. This is a method on which Dr. DeForest is now working. He believes that radio-telephony has a wide field in all marine communication and between isolated points, in mountain and rural districts, in military field operations, and he ventures the opinion that if transatlantic telephony is ever accomplished it will be by means of the upper medium rather than by a submarine cable.—Abstracted from the Journal of the Franklin Institute (Philadelphia), June.—Electrical Review.
It is stated that a transatlantic wireless telegraph service will be opened by the Marconi Company in September. Messages will be transmitted from the station at Clifton, Ireland, to Cape Breton, Canada, at little more than half present cable rates. Signals have been exchanged between the stations in Ireland and Canada for some time with satisfactory results.— Page's Weekly.
GERMAN WIRELESS TELEGRAPH DEVELOPMENT.—The German official system of wireless telegraphy, the Slaby-Arco method, includes, it is stated, 20 stations in the United States. From Chemnitz, Germany, U. S. Consul Thomas H. Norton reports as follows regarding the system: "The number of stations equipped with apparatus of this system is now 641, or 41 per cent of the entire list of existing wireless telegraphic stations, numbering 1550. These have all been installed by one Berlin company, which controls a variety of patents in the leading countries on machines and accessories. These 641 stations are scattered over the territory or vessels of 31 different countries. Of these some 174 are located on land. They usually command a radius of 125 miles. In several cases this is extended to 310,435 or even greater distances. Germany's own quota is 36, mostly located on the coasts of the Baltic and North Seas. It includes the great experimental station at Nauen, which commands a radius of 1860 miles. In the United States are 20 stations, including Fire Island, Washington, New Orleans, San Francisco and San Juan, P.R. Russia has 17 stations. That of Vladivostok is the most important, commanding a range of 620 miles. Austria-Hungary has to stations; Denmark and Spain, each 7; Holland, 6 (that of Scheveningen reaches 435 miles); Norway and Sweden, each 5, etc.
"In non-European lands the system has 4 stations in Argentina,6 in Brazil,5 in China,8 in Cuba (that of Havana commanding 930 miles),6 in Mexico, 2 in the Philippines, 1 in the Sandwich Islands (at Honolulu). The majority of these land stations are government property and under the control of the postal, naval or lighthouse service.
"Most of the installations are on ocean vessels. Of these 22 are on Dutch and German steamers, while 389 are on warships. They include vessels of the following nationalities: German, 140; Russian, 126; American, 43; Swedish, 19; Austrian, 17; Dutch, 10; Norwegian, 8; Argentinian, 6; Danish, 5; Brazilian, 5; Spanish, 5; Greek, 3, and Indian, 2. "Fifty-four mobile military stations have been installed in several countries, more particularly in Germany, 14; in America, 8; in China, 5; in England, 4; and in Austria-Hungary, 4.—Electrical World.
WIRELESS TO ALASKA.—Arrangements have been completed whereby the War and Navy Departments will co-operate in the maintenance of wireless communication between Nome and St. Michael, Alaska, and Seattle and San Francisco. The signal corps of the army now has wireless stations at the Alaskan cities, and next year will establish one at Fort Gibbon, which will be capable of communicating with a naval wireless station to be erected at Valdez. The navy already has several stations in Alaska.
The steel towers which the signal corps is to erect at Fairbanks and Circle, Alaska, to carry wireless telegraph instruments, will be 175 feet high. The distance between the two places is 140 miles, and regular wireless communication is to be maintained.—Electrical Review.
NOTES ON TUNING IN WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. By Sir Oliver Lodge.— The principles of tuning were clearly explained by Mr. Duddell recently; and I shall assume them known; but it is not to be supposed that the application of these principles requires the arc. Sufficient tuning for all practical purposes can be obtained by using the right kind of spark. It is possible to acquire too long a train of waves, in which case the latter half of the train will undo what the former half has begun, in analogy with beats. Thirty or forty swings can be easily got by a spark, and that is enough for practical requirements.
Kind of Spark.—A non-tuned station puts all the energy into a single snap, so as to produce a single discontinuous pulse calculated to affect every kind of station within the range of its power. For a tuned station this sudden snappy spark is to be avoided. The ideal arrangement is a spark of a sufficient number of alternations of approximately equal strength, no one of which is sufficient to operate, but such that the accumulated influence of all of them is powerful. Instead, therefore, of the clean polished metal knobs in fresh or compressed air, which are suitable for a snappy spark, a tuned station may employ a series of points enclosed in ionised air, so as to maintain conduction as long as possible. The maintenance is also assisted by using an alternator with a curve of the right shape—not a sine curve, but a high-shouldered curve (see Fig. 1)—so as to keep up the stimulating potential for a sufficient time. The spark passes when the potential corresponds to the point a, and a number of oscillations of nearly equal intensity are made between a and b. It is this kind of spark which at the Lodge-Muirhead station at Elmers End was photographed by Mr. Duddell on a revolving mirror, and exhibited on Friday night.
Effect of the Earth.—But attention to the spark alone is not sufficient; it is necessary to eliminate the influence of the earth. For the snappy or non-tuned emission, such as was employed by Mr. Marconi for great distances, it is convenient to use an elevated wire on the one hand, and the earth on the other; but for a tuned station this is not appropriate. A tuned station requires two capacity areas above the earth, as published by me in 1897. These capacity areas are usually horizontal frames (see Fig. 2) of shapes devised by my friend and partner, Dr. Alexander Muirhead, who has found that there is a best position for the lower aerial, such that the capacity is a minimum. It was under these circumstances that the photograph above spoken of was taken, and the sending efficiency is most marked. If the lower aerial be too much raised, the radiating power is diminished; if it be lowered, the train of waves is shortened, until when it is allowed to touch the earth—still more of it is connected with the earth—there is hardly any train of waves at all, and the discharge is almost dead-beat.
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There is a great advantage in the getting rid of earth contacts, in as-much as variations of moisture and uncertainties of the soil do not enter into confuse the problem and throw the tuning out. But even if the earth remained constant, it would be deleterious; it seems by its resistance to damp out the vibrations and shorten the train of waves, in so far as it is allowed to exert any influence.
Method of Receiving from a Distant Tuned Station.—The first thing is to tune up accurately the receiver. This can be done by a Duddell radio-micrometer, which measures the received energy satisfactorily, although it is very small. Tuning is altered until the reading on this micrometer rises to a high value, then the receiving apparatus is purposely made un- sensitive, so that the coherer will only respond to this high value; in other words, to the top of the curve. The message can then be received from the desired station. If the receiving apparatus were left sensitive, it would be affected violently by the desired station, but it would pick up a number of disturbances from other stations. By working at the top of the curve, it feels the desired station alone.
Perfection of Tuning.—In this way it was possible to receive at Hythe from Elmers End, whilst a much more powerful and nearer station at Dover was making a disturbance, which was entirely eliminated. It is easy to hear the ships in the Channel, but it is also easy to tune everything out, and listen to the desired station alone. A 5 per cent change could be made to throw this out and throw a neighboring one in; but in practice it would be undesirable to try to work quite so close as that. With changes of that order of magnitude, however, several neighboring sending stations can be made to send to several neighboring receiving stations without interference. That is to say, diplex telegraphy is possible, though not duplex.
Tuning at the Sending End.—In order to economize power, it is desirable to have every part tuned. The aerials connected through the secondary of a peculiarly made Ruhmkorff coil constitute one oscillating system of a low frequency, to correspond with an ordinary commercial alternator which excites them. When the swing is worked up, they burst through the spark-gap, short-circuiting out the Rulunkorff, and giving excessively
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rapid oscillations, which are the ones transmitted. These are picked up by the receiving station, and transferred at constant frequency into a closed condenser-circuit (see Fig. 3), which, when its swings reach a maximum overflow in to the coherer. This is called the "overflow method," and was described by me in 1889 and 1891.
Ratio of Received to Emitted Energy.—Theoretical calculations show that the energy received, compared with the energy radiated, depends on the cube of the linear dimensions of emitter and receiver, if they are alike, and likewise on the cube of the distance between them. Measurements made with the radio-micrometer confirm this estimate approximately, the value in one series of experiments being 10-9. Although this is a small fraction, the accuracy of the tuning is such that messages are sent between Burma and the Andaman Island—a distance of about 300 miles—with less than a horsepower.
Other Precautions.—To get such a result, precautions must be taken to avoid damping out the oscillations, not only by elevation of the lower aerial above the earth, but by using appropriate condensers for these excessively high frequencies. To this end the wires used are finely subdivided in insulated strands, and consist of a great cable or bundle of thinly-insulated No. 40 wires, and the various self-inductions, and other arrangements for effecting tuning, are similarly wound. The tuning capacities are also arranged so as to be continuously adjustable without pegs or discontinuities, and every kind of broken or uncertain contact is scrupulously avoided.
In the discussion of the foregoing paper, Sir Oliver Lodge made the further remarks which follow. He was not surprised at the incredulity expressed as to the advantage gained by cutting off the transmitting and receiving circuits from the earth. The problem was a very curious one, and at first it was thought that a good connection to earth was a great advantage. He still thought that the earth, or rather the sea and the sky, had an important effect in facilitating long-distance transmission by means of a kind of reflection. The electro-magnetic waves were apparently confined within two reflecting shells constituted by the upper layers of the atmosphere, which were, it was well known, good conductors, and the lower conducting shell constituted by the sea. The reflection of the waves from these two conducting shells helped the radiation to follow the curvature of the earth round to surprising distances.
{figure}
If, however, the earth were coupled up to the lower element of his transmitter,the train of waves was damped out; and if,on the other hand, the distance between the upper and lower elements was too much diminished, an insufficient number of lines of force escaped to work the distant apparatus. There was, therefore, as already stated, a best elevation for the lower aerial. The lines of force between the latter and the earth, to which Sir William Preece had referred, existed, but did not prolong the oscillation, which was what was wanted, and the fewer there were of them the better.
this was clearly shown by determining the resonance curves by the Duddell radio-micrometer. With the lower aerial in its proper position the resonance curve was very steep, as on Fig. 1; whilst with it close to the earth, the curve had the form indicated in Fig. 2. Here, it is true, there was a little more energy all the way along the curve, and for non-tuned work this would be an advantage. When, finally, the lower aerial was in actual contact with the earth, the curve obtained was of the character shown in Fig. 3, where there was hardly any resonance at all. This would be all right if your object were to hear every ship within range, but not when it was desired to speak to some particular one. In that case, by arranging matters so that the steep resonance curve was obtained, all the other transmitters could be tuned out.
Professor Trouton here asked if the increased velocity of the waves in the upper regions of the air, where the specific inductive capacity was less, would not also help the waves to follow the curve of the earth. An effect of this kind must exist, and he wished to know if it was of sensible importance.
Sir Oliver Lodge, continuing, said that Professor Trouton suggested that refraction,as well as reflection,might aid in bending round the electro-magnetic waves to the curvature of the earth; but he thought himself that the whole inductive action was so small that there would be no practical effect of the kind supposed. The suggestion he had made as to the sea and sky acting as reflectors was, however, he wished to say, at present a mere hypothesis, and wanted further investigation. In reply to a question from Mr. Hawksley, he added that the elevation of the aerials was settled once for all,and any further tuning required was made by adjustments of capacity and self-induction within the station. After a little practice, corporals or sergeants of the Royal Engineers could pick up the note of any sending station in one or two minutes; whilst, of course, if they already knew this note, they could adjust the receiver for it instantly.— Engineering.
MISCELLANEOUS.
BRITISH AND FOREIGN NAVIES.—The annual return showing the fleets of Great Britain, France, Russia, Germany, Italy, the United States of America, and Japan, on March 31, 1967, has been issued. All vessels which still retain their armaments, and are not for sale, are included. The vessels are shown in 12 classes, and those built are shown separately from those building, while vessels are not transferred from the "Building" to the "Built" section until they have completed their trials and are ready for commissioning. In each class vessels are arranged in types, the latest designed type being placed first in the case of those built, and last in the case of those building. A nominal statement prefaces each class and shows in a convenient form the strengths of the various Powers. From these statements we obtain the following figures and footnotes:
Built.
| Great Britain. | France. | Russia. | Germany. | Italy. | United States. | Japan. |
Battleships. | 60 | 31 | 10 | 32 | 15 | 23 | 15 |
Coast Defence Vessels. | -- | 8 | 2 | 11 | -- | 11 | 1 |
Cruisers: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Armored. | 30 | 18 | 3 | 6 | 6 | 12 | 10 |
Protected, 1st class. | 21 | 7 | 7 | -- | -- | 3 | 2 |
Protected, 2d class. | 45 | 12 | 2 | 16 | 4 | 16 | 11 |
Protected 3d class. | 16 | 16 | 1 | 12 | 13 | 2 | 8 |
Unprotected. | -- | 1 | 2 | 15 | -- | 5 | 5 |
Scouts. | 8 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
Torpedo Vessels. | 20 | 14 | 7 | 1 | 9 | 2 | 1 |
Torpedo-boat Destroyers. | 143 | 34 | 85 | 47 | 17 | 20 | 56 |
Torpedo-boats | 89 | 280 | 162 | 84 | 108 | 32 | 79 |
Submarines. | 37 | 40 | 20 | 1 | 4 | 8 | 7 |
Notes.—France: One battleship badly damaged and one probably to be condemned. Six of the coast defence vessels are armored gun vessels. One 1st class and two 3d class protected cruisers expected to be condemned.
Russia: The coast defence vessels are armored gun vessels. One 2d class protected cruiser is partially protected. The unprotected cruisers are training ships. All information as to submarines is very doubtful.
Germany: The coast defence vessels are armored gun vessels. Six unprotected cruisers are training ships. One t. b. d. sank, but raised May, 1906, and may be repaired.
Italy: Two 3d class protected cruisers are partially protected. United States: One coast defence vessel is for ramming only.
Building.
| Great Britain. | France. | Russia. | Germany. | Italy. | United States. | Japan. |
Battleships. | 5 | 10 | 4 | 8 | 5 | 7 | 2 |
Coast Defence Vessels. | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
Cruisers: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Armored. | 8 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 3 |
Protected, 1st class. | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
Protected, 2d class. | -- | -- | -- | 8 | -- | -- | 1 |
Protected 3d class. | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
Unprotected. | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 2 |
Scouts. | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 3 | -- |
Torpedo Vessels. | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
Torpedo-boat Destroyers. | 8 | 31 | 12 | 26 | -- | 5 | -- |
Torpedo-boats | 17 | 19 | -- | -- | 5 | -- | -- |
Submarines. | 11 | 59 | 8 | 2 | 2 | 4 | -- |
Notes.—France: Six battleships ordered to be laid down in 1906; work on these has been commenced, but it is uncertain if all the keels have been actually laid. Two t.b.d.'s are armored; six are ordered to be laid down, but it is uncertain whether they are actually commenced; and five are to be laid down in 1907. Twenty submarines ordered to be laid down, but it is uncertain whether they are actually commenced; 10 to be laid down in 1907.
Russia: All information as to submarines is doubtful.
Germany: One battleship of program 1906-7, to be laid down April, 1907; two battleships of 1907-8 program. One armored cruiser to be laid down 1907-8. Two 2d class protected cruisers to be laid down 1907-8. Twelve t. b. d.’s to be laid down 1907-8. One submarine to be laid down in 1907; £73,385 allowed for submarines in estimates, 1905-6, £122,309 in 1906-7, and £146,771 asked for in 1907-8.
Italy: One battleship of 1907-8 program.
United States: Two battleships not yet laid down, one of 1906-7 program and one of 1907-8 program. The five t. b. d.'s not yet laid down (three of 1906-7 program, two of 1907-8 program). 1205,486 allowed for submarines in estimates, 5906-7 and 1907-8.—Army and Navy Gazette.
In the course of a speech in the House of Lords, the First Lord of the Admiralty gave a classification of the recent Dilke Return, showing the real comparative strength of Great Britain and the other Powers in completed first-class battleships less than 25 years old, and armored cruisers less than 20 years old, thus ruling out a number of old and useless men-of-war. Lord Tweedmouth, at the same time, indicated that in the opinion of the Admiralty, certain of the ships remaining after applying this test of age might be regarded as obsolescent, and therefore of slight fighting value. At the suggestion of Lord Cawdor, the late First Lord, this statement has been issued as a parliamentary paper. The following are the totals for each of the Powers:
Battleships.
| Efficient. | Obsolescent. | Total. |
Great Britain. | 39 | 18 | 57 |
France. | 14 | 6 | 20 |
Germany. | 11 | 9 | 11 |
Japan. | 9 | 2 | 22 |
United States. | 18 | 4 | 22 |
Armored Cruisers.
| Efficient. | Obsolescent. | Total. |
Great Britain. | 32 | -- | 32 |
France. | 18 | -- | 18 |
Germany. | 6 | -- | 6 |
Japan. | 10 | -- | 10 |
United States. | 12 | -- | 12 |
Included in the French battleships in the second column is the Iena, which was badly damaged by explosion and fire recently.—United Service Gazette.
THE WORLD'S WARSHIPS.—Among warships built or under construction on July 1, 1907,no less than 49 are of 16,000 tons displacement or upward and 137 others of upward of 12,000 tons. This compares with a total of 139 upward of 12,000 tons in 1903 and only 77 in 1899. Of the largest size, England possesses the greatest number, with 17, followed by the United States with to, France and Japan with 6 each and Germany with 5. Of those between 12,000 and 16,000 tons, England has a still greater lead, with 58 against 20 for the United States, 15 for France, 12 each for Italy and Japan, 11 for Germany and 9 for Russia.
Comparisons of Speed.—When it comes to a question of speed—excluding all forms of torpedo craft—we find that the total number capable of 24 knots or higher on July 1, 1907, was 24, with 111 others from 22 to 24 knots and 163 more from 20 to 22 knots. This makes a total of 298 of 20 knots or more, compared with 256 in 1903 and 179 in 1899. The advance is most marked among the vessels of the highest speeds, the total above 22 knots being 135 at present, as compared with 92 in 1903 and only 38 in 1899. With her immense navy to draw from, England leads in number of swift vessels, as well as in large ones. She has 14 ships of 24 knots or more, 32 of 22 knots and 50 of 20 knots. The United States has 3 of 24 knots, 15 of 22 and 10 of 20 knots. Germany has, respectively, 2, 19 and 16. Japan has 1, 8, and 18. Italy has 1, 6, and 11. No other large power has ships of over 24 knots. France has 11 of 22 knots and 26 of 20 knots. Russia has 7 of 22 knots and only 4 between 20 and 22 knots.
Considering the speeds of all the navies, minor as well as major, and omitting all torpedo craft, the premier position is held by Chile, with 20.74 knots, England being second with 20.14 knots. The others in order are Brazil, 19.7 knots; Japan, 19.65 knots; Italy, 19.47 knots; Austria, 19.22 knots; France, 18.94 knots; United States, 18.9 knots; Germany, 18.76 knots; China, 18.66 knots; Argentina, 18.61 knots, and Russia, 18.06 knots. The inclusion of so many of the smaller naval powers high up in this list is due in very large measure to the fact that most of them possess fleets made up largely of cruisers, which are naturally of greater speed than the heavy battleships of the greater powers.
Comparisons of Total Tonnage.—Excluding torpedo craft and obsolete and worn out vessels, the navies of the world included, on July 1, 1907, in vessels built and building, 963 ships of a total displacement of 6,099,448 tons, or an average of 6332. The total number of guns of primary and secondary batteries, including torpedo tubes, was 29,527, or an average of about 31 per ship. The average speed of the ships was 18.94 knots.
Greater Britain as usual, accounts for the largest force, with 197 ships of 1,841,730 tons, or an average of 9349. The average speed of these ships is 20.14 knots. The total number of guns is 7403, or an average of 38 per ship. France comes second, with 112 ships of 812,345 tons, or an average of 7231. The speed averages 18.94 knots. There are 3488 guns, or an average of 31. The third place is held by the United States, with no ships, of 799,028 tons, or an average of 7264. The average speed of the American ships is 18.9 knots. The guns number 3924, or an average of 36. Germany has 120 ships, aggregating 707,870 tons, or an average of 5899, with an average speed of 18.76 knots and a total battery of 3811 guns, or an average of 32.
No other power has as much as 500,000 tons in the navy, Japan coming closest to this mark, with 63 ships and 486,872 tons, or an average of 7728, and an average speed of 19.65 knots. The guns number 2267, or an average of 36. Russia and Italy are close rivals in tonnage. Russia has 56 ships, of 358,296 tons, or an average of 6398 and a speed of 18.06 knots. They carry 1854 guns, or an average of 33. Italy has 57 ships, of 357,491 tons, or an average of 6272, and a speed of 19.47 knots. The guns number 1976, or an average of 35. The only other navy of real importance is that of Austria, which includes 29 ships, of 128,865 tons, or an average of 4444, and a speed of 19.22 knots. The guns number 770, or an average of 27 per ship.
The Anglo-Saxons are thus seen to possess 307 ships, of 2,640,758 tons, or an average of 8602, with a mean speed of 19.77 knots and a total battery of 11,327 guns, or an average of 37. This is ahead of any conceivable outside political combination, for France, Germany, Russia, Italy, Austria, and Spain combined have but 396 ships, of 2,430,696 tons, or an average of 6412, and a mean speed of 18.81 knots. Their guns number 12,319,oran average of 31.—Iron Age.
SHIPBUILDING ESTIMATES OF THE WORLD.—The Admiralty state that the total sums set down in the navy estimates, 1907-8, of Great Britain, France, Germany, and the United States for shipbuilding, repairs, and armaments, "on the same basis as the answer given on November 13, 1906," to Mr. Bellairs, are as follows:
Great Britain.
| 1907-8 Estimate. |
Shipbuilding. | £8,113,202 |
Repairs and maintenance of materials (i.e., hulls, machinery, and equipment, anchors, cables, etc.), but not store. | 1,800,198 |
Armament and first outfit of ammunition for new ships and rearmed ships. | 1,127,000 |
Repairs and maintenance of guns and torpedos. | 62,000 |
Total | £11,102,400 |
France, Germany, and United States.
Aggregate sums voted for shipbuilding, repairs, and armaments:
Country. | Financial Year. | Estimates. |
France. | January to December, 1907 | £5,724,468 |
Germany. | April, 1907 to March, 1908 | 7,287,025 |
United States | July, 1907 to June, 1908 | 9,387,0721 |
Total aggregate | £22,398,565 |
1This figure includes a sum of £821,946 towards the accumulation of a reserve supply of ammunition.—United Service Institution.
HIGH SPEED IN THE BRITISH NAVY.—M the concluding meeting of the Conference of the Institution of Civil Engineers, at Westminster, Professor J. J. Welch dealt with the subject of "High-speed Vessels," confining his attention mainly to those designed for the British Navy.
He pointed out that the maximum speeds on trials had been practically doubled within the past 30 years, and that though none of the 33-knot destroyer type had yet been tried, and the Swift was still building, it was confidently expected that their designed speeds with heavy loads on trial would be realized. Side by side with this development of speed, the sea-going and sea-keeping qualities of the vessels had been greatly augmented, the length of torpedo-boats having grown from the 89 feet of the Lightning to the 183 feet of the most recent of the type, while the dimensions of destroyers had increased from 185 feet to 343 feet. It was, of course, essential in high-speed vessels to save weight wherever practicable. The Turbinia, a special vessel 100 feet long and displacing 44 1/2 tons on trial, marked with her rotary engines a notable advance, no less than 72 horsepower bing estimated to be produced per ton of machinery. Necessarily this standard was not reached in the larger vessels of the seagoing destroyer type subsequently built and fitted with turbine machinery, but the results were distinctly in advance of those obtainable with reciprocating engines, while a still better performance might be reckoned upon in the latest vessels provided with turbines and with boilers using oil fuel. Even from the point of view of comfort, the introduction of oil fuel had secured important advantages, the operation of fueling the ship and furnaces was less laborious and more cleanly than before, while the hot cinders which frequently fell during a full-speed trial on the deck of a destroyer using coal, were in the latest vessels conspicuous by their absence. With regard to the future, much was hoped for from the attention now being directed to the development of internal combustion motors using gas or oil. From particulars in his possession of a gasoline motor 'recently built abroad for marine work, it appeared that such apparatus would produce power equivalent to 600 i.h.p. per ton. Experiments with comparatively small vessels would doubtless point the way to improvements in larger types, and as the result they might expect that, just as the high performance of the special vessel Lightning as regarded horsepower produced per ton of machinery was ultimately reproduced in much larger and heavier seagoing vessels, so in due time it would be possible to attain in such vessels the very high standard set by the special vessel Turbinia.—United Service Gazette.