MOTTO: "The bed-rock of a naval service is organization."
"Historically good men with poor ships are better than Poor men with good ships; over and over again the French Revolution taught this lesson, which our own age, with its rage for the last new thing in material improvement, has largely dropped out of memory." The problem that confronts us is not the manning of poor ships, but the providing of crews for men-of-war, which through liberal appropriations of Congress and well directed efforts of American naval constructors, mechanical engineers, and ordnance experts, compare favorably With any afloat. But "good ships and good guns are simply good weapons, and the best weapons are useless save in the hands of men who know how to fight them." While it is generally conceded that naval battles will continue to be won by the superiority of the men behind the guns, the enlisted personnel has not awakened the interest in the service that it deserves nor attracted as much attention as some branches of the material. The popular belief in the facility with which a large naval force can be mobilized is unfortunate, and the feeling of security and confidence in the navy, on account of easily won victories in the Spanish war, is unwarranted. "Preparedness for a naval war consists not so much in ships.. . . as to have trained men in adequate numbers fit to go: on board at once and use the material. Fit by familiarity not only with the special instruments but with a manner of life " In a population of eighty millions such preparedness ought to be easily accomplished as far as numbers are concerned. As to fitness much depends upon the standards adopted. Recent experiences in the expansion of the navy show that the most difficult task before us is the training of the enlisted force so that the vessels under construction may have efficient crews.
The discussion in the NAVAL INSTITUTE of the proper type of ship for the training of recruits afloat indicates a healthful general interest in the early education of apprentices and landsmen. Undoubtedly the character of the ship in which a recruit does his first duty afloat will have a marked influence upon his general development, but the system under which the training is carried on will have far greater weight in determining his usefulness to the naval service. It is to be regretted that this question of type of ships did not involve a discussion of the training of the entire enlisted personnel.
In his annual message to Congress, December, 1901, the President stated with reference to the needs of the navy that "the men must be trained and drilled under a thorough and well planned system of progressive instruction while the recruiting must be carried on with still greater vigor." During the past year success has attended the measures adopted to obtain the recruits, and some branches of the training have received much attention, but a general system of progressive instruction such as indicated, has received little or no consideration. The necessity of such a system is becoming more evident daily, but the devising of one has not been undertaken, probably on account of the vast amount of labor involved which must be futile without official recognition.
During the past four years the writer has had exceptional opportunities to note the needs of the service with regard to training while on duty at the Newport training station and in the Topeka, Alliance and Hartford, and during the mobilization of 1900 in the Massachusetts with a deck force largely composed of recruits. With such frequent change of duty one is impressed with the general lack of uniformity and the necessity of systematic training. A study of service conditions shows that many of the defects are of long standing and nearly all have been commented upon frequently in unmistakable terms. There is little that is new in what follows. Many of the propositions which were thought to have an element of originality seem to have been under discussion for years, and if the excellent measures advocated from time to time had been carried out there would be little occasion for this article.
No criticism of individuals or ships is intended in what follows. This review of present conditions, future demands, and suggestions for improvements is submitted for consideration with no other object than that it may be the initial step towards the adoption of a general system of naval training.
PRESENT CONDITIONS.
The Navy Regulations make ample provision in a general way for the recruiting, training, and treatment of the enlisted force. Strictly followed and fully carried out these provisions of the Regulations would insure healthy, contented, well trained American crews for our ships. That this does not always obtain is due to various causes, nearly all of which have their origin in the gradual changes of condition of personnel and material during the last ten or twelve years. The machinery of naval administration has not developed in proportion and facility with the increased responsibilities and duties attending the expansion of the enlisted force which has more than trebled in the last decade. The customs and traditions of the service, formerly the guides for carrying out the details of organization and training, insured unity of action in a smaller navy made up of ships of similar types. To present conditions and needs of the service many of these customs and traditions no longer apply, and others are forgotten.
In the absence of any regularly adopted system for the general training of modern men-of-war's men, there has been much diversity of opinion not only as to methods but as to desired results. In each of the various types of vessels there is a tendency to develop the knowledge along special lines without regard to its usefulness in the general service. Specializing before qualifying generally is producing a class of petty officers most competent in their respective branches but lacking the resources of seamen readily recognized by Napoleon; he always kept a few hundred seafaring men in his headquarters guard, and paid the highest tribute to their general usefulness.
The present satisfactory condition of the various schools for the early training of recruits—apprentices and landsmen—is evidence of what can be accomplished in the face of much outside opposition by officers interested in the work and receiving the cordial support of the Department. A casual inspection of the training stations will give convincing proof of the facility with which the early training can be carried on in barracks and the high state of efficiency reached in the limited time allowed. Many of the training ships are also doing excellent work, considering their crowded condition, and the indifferent character of their regular crews. But the present system of training afloat is not economical in point of time or expense, and does not supply a sufficient number of recruits qualified for transfer for the general service.
The impression that this early training accomplishes little is due to lack of proper understanding and appreciation of the conditions under which it takes place. The character and scope of the work done are by no means uniform, as the requirements of the service frequently demand the transfer of men from training stations and training ships before they are qualified to leave. At present the time allowed for this part of the training is too limited to obtain the results expected by some. It is too much to expect that a boy of sixteen of average intelligence can be made a thorough seaman, gunnery expert, and signalman in a year, the average time from the date of enlistment to transfer to the general service.
The establishment of courses of a special nature, while leaving much to be desired in the way of co-operation, is sending many well trained men out in the service, as evidence of their efficiency. At these schools and in other parts of the service there are many officers zealous and untiring in their individual efforts to improve the condition of the personnel. Their experience has resulted in the development, in individual ships and at stations, of many excellent methods which if generally known would be valuable to the whole service, but oftentimes are of no Permanent value through change of personnel.
The Navy Regulations provide that instruction in training Ships and in the general service shall be progressive and conform to the system adopted at training stations. But the character and extent of the work done there and the methods employed is not generally known; there is no recognized system; and the instruction is often of the nature of the most convenient, rather than the most useful; time is wasted on obsolete and useless drills which were an essential part of the training in the Past; more time is lost through lack of preparation in advance of the drill period; interest lags over frequent repetitions of useless details while important subjects are not touched upon; there is too much drill and too little practice; tedious lectures are given while advantage is not taken of the facilities for practical instruction out of consideration of the condition of equipments which become antiquated before they show evidence of service,—another instance of greater regard for the condition of material than of personnel. For want of proper supervision there is lack of uniformity of instruction, not only in different ships but also in different divisions of the same ship.
The prominent part taken by the navy in the Spanish war and the popular interest it awakened, especially in the interior, has resulted in the recruiting of large numbers of young Americans of sterling qualifications, who show much interest and zeal at the start. It is to be expected that the unnatural life may prove distasteful to some, but that it fails to offer sufficient inducements to make a larger percentage of these recruits remain in the service is a matter deserving careful consideration. The average length of service of the enlisted men at present is about three years. It is this short service that is the root of the trouble of efficient training.
The most alarming feature of the present situation is the general apathy. The achievements in large commercial enterprises of an international character have resulted in a popular belief that, in case war becomes inevitable, means for successful preparation will be found; no account is taken of the rapid Progress made in foreign navies, and the practical knowledge they are acquiring daily. Such a course means disaster. What is needed is sustained interest of a practical character.
FUTURE DEMANDS.
The foreign policy to which the United States seems committed makes a moderate sized navy a necessity; the actual size will depend in some degree upon the effective naval forces abroad. While the naval powers continue to make large additions to their fleets the expansion of our own navy will probably go on, as the largely increased naval appropriations meet with popular approval.
The recommendation of the Chief of the Bureau of Navigation for an increase of 3000 men brings the total enlisted force up to 31,000—the number needed to man the vessels ready for service by 1904. Further increase is necessary to provide crews for vessels contemplated and it should be authorized along with the new construction.
To have a safe working basis, in considering the facilities for training, 40,000 has been regarded as the aggregate enlisted force. To keep up that number at the present rate of loss, 1200 recruits monthly will be required. It is the training of these 14,400 recruits yearly and improving the work done in the general service that demands our serious consideration.
POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN DEVELOPING SYSTEM.
Assuming that present conditions and future demands necessitate radical changes and improvements in methods of training there are certain questions affecting the general character and efficiency of the work that must be settled at the outset, and a definite policy outlined upon which to base further development of the system. In deciding these questions the future effect as well as the immediate advantage of the measures adopted should be considered; the general good of the whole service and ultimate fighting efficiency should be the guiding principles.
What are to be the standards of efficiency? Such as to insure success in battle with equal numbers, and nothing short of honorable defeat by a superior force. Ship for ship and man for man we must have no superiors. An investigation of conditions abroad shows that every naval power is making strenuous efforts towards improvement of personnel. To attain the desired state of efficiency in our own service the best class of recruits must be obtained, the facilities for training improved, and greater average length of service secured.
RECRUITS FOR THE SEAMAN CLASS.
There has always been much opposition to the apprentice system since its foundation in 1837; acts of Congress authorizing it were repealed twice, the present law dating from 1875. The disfavor with which it has had to contend in the service has been a serious hindrance to obtaining the best results, and difference of opinion as to policy has been a constant obstruction to legislation providing the necessary facilities for good work.
The success attending the recruiting and training of landsmen has brought the two means of recruiting the seaman class in comparison with a growing sentiment in favor of landsmen for training. Several officers who are close observers and have had experience recently in training both landsmen and apprentices are strongly in favor of abolishing the entire apprentice system, believing that results already obtained show the superiority of the older recruits. But there can be no question as to the more lasting effects of military instinct and spirit cultivated before maturity; in the British navy, where conditions of the enlisted personnel more closely resemble our own, the seaman Class is recruited entirely by enlistments between the ages of 15 ¼ and 18.
The alleged defects of the apprentice system are greater cost and labor of training, little practical service rendered during the greater part of the first enlistment, and the failure of any considerable number of apprentices to re-enlist. In view of the present condition of the enlisted force these are grave faults. But future warrant officers and petty officers must have had the distinct advantage of training while young, so instead of abandoning the best source of recruiting, remedy the principal defect by raising the minimum age of apprentices to 16, making the corresponding physical requirements so high as to effectually prevent enlistments under that age.
For convenience in training, divide the recruits into two classes according to age—apprentices from 16 to 19, and landsmen from 19 to 25. Make the pay of apprentices, third class, $12.00 per month, increasing it to $16.00 when they qualify as apprentices, second class, about six months after enlistment, and give the pay of an ordinary seaman upon transfer to the general service.
AMOUNT OF TIME DEVOTED TO PRELIMINARY TRAINING.
How much time should be devoted to training of recruits preliminary to their transfer to general service? In the future as in the past expediency will determine to a great extent the time to be given to this part of the training. But in a well developed system the transfer of recruits to fighting ships should not be made until they are so well qualified as to need no further elementary drill and instruction that will interfere materially with the general training required to keep the ship up to the highest state of fighting efficiency. Furthermore due regard should be paid to the greater facility with which a number of the drills now included in a ship's routine can be carried out on shore.
To meet the immediate demands of the service it may seem advisable to limit this early training to six months or even three months in order to man new ships and make available for other duty officers engaged in this preliminary training. Six months instead of one year's preliminary training with the same facilities, explained later on, will release about 46 line officers, 65 warrant officers, 629 petty officers and men directly engaged in the work of training, and will add 4500 recruits to the number available to man ships. But in the end it is not believed that the additional number of ships will compensate for the decreased efficiency in every ship, and the effective fighting power of the whole navy will suffer as a result. A safer plan is to increase the number of ships in commission only as efficient crews are provided, using every possible means to hasten the training.
Assuming that sailing vessels and gunnery ships will be regularly assigned to all training stations in the future, and that transfers will be made directly from these stations to the general service, a recruit during this early training should be taught how to take care of his clothing, pull a good oar, swim, and wigwag; he should have had the training in gunnery prescribed for the "preliminary class" in both small arms and great guns; should know enough about ordnance to use small arms and rapid fire guns intelligently at drills; should be proficient in infantry, artillery, and gymnastics; and should have a practical knowledge of the lead, log, and compass, and such knowledge of sail and spar seamanship as may be deemed necessary for his general development and future usefulness. It is useless to attempt to cram all this into a recruit inside of six months, and a year can be employed profitably in providing a good foundation for advanced training. In the British navy sixteen months are allotted to this part of the work.
FACILITIES.
The large increase in the number of recruits makes more extended facilities for training necessary. The system aims at bringing to everyone the things he ought to know in such a way and under such conditions as to be most readily understood. The quickest and most efficient means should be adopted without too much regard for expense. The present emergency is not a proper time to practice great economy. If a navy is needed the ships should be efficiently manned whatever the cost. It will be false economy to provide cheap crews for expensive ships—crews that will not get the full efficiency out of equipment provided at great expense. Naval powers should be rated according to the number of well trained men rather than the number of first-class ships.
Without entering into a discussion of the best type of ship for the early training afloat, the writer believes that he is in accord with the prevailing sentiment of the service in recommending the substitution of sailing brigs and gunnery vessels, attached to the training stations, to do the work of the present cruising training ships. By such a change two great advantages are gained—progressive training up to time of transfer to general service will be insured, and serious offenses can be properly dealt with, the offenders being dismissed before they have an opportunity to corrupt others.
The brigs should be of 500 tons displacement carrying too recruits, and the gunnery vessels should be large enough to accommodate 50 recruits at a time. The following is suggested as the personnel of the regular complements of these vessels:
SAILING BRIGS. GUNNERY VESSELS.
1 lieutenant, commanding. 1 lieutenant, commanding.
1 midshipman. 1 gunner.
1 medical officer. 1 chief gunner's mate.
2 boatswains. 1 master-at-arms.
1 chief master-at-arms. 1 gunner's mate.
1 chief boatswain's mate. 1 boatswain's mate.
2 masters-at-arms. 1 quartermaster.
4 boatswain's mates. 2 ship's cooks.
2 quartermasters. 1 mess attendant.
1 sailmaker's mate. 1 hospital steward.
2 ship's cooks. 1 chief machinist.
1 officer's cook. 1 oiler.
2 mess attendants. 1 fireman, 1st class.
1 yeoman. 1 coal passer.
1 hospital apprentice.
1 carpenter's mate.
To avoid congestion, facilitate progressive instruction, and provide for supplying the regular service with men at frequent intervals, recruits should be divided into four classes and assigned to the various branches of work as follows:
On Shore. Sailing Brig. Gunboat.
4th Class 3 months
3rd Class 2 months 1 month
2nd Class 2 months 1 month
1st Class 1 month 1 month 1 month
Total 8 months 3 months 1 month
The time allotted to training in the sailing brigs is distributed over the year's course in order that the younger recruits may have the advantage of being associated with the more advanced. Gunnery training afloat is confined to recruits of the first class, who will have made sufficient general progress to fit them for this most important work.
Experience has shown that 1200 to 1500 recruits are about as many as can be trained to advantage under a single command on shore. Assuming that they will receive a year's training before transfer to the general service, it becomes necessary to establish several new training stations to provide for 9000 recruits. The ideal location for a training station would fulfill the following requirements: be healthful; have a climate permitting drills of all kinds throughout the year; have facilities for ranges for target practice on shore; a sheet of water close at hand where great gun target practice may be conducted generally without interruption; be easy of access to training ships under sail, and afford a safe anchorage for small craft; have facilities for boat exercises under oars and under sails; have a large drill ground for infantry and artillery which can also be used for field sports; and be near a large city.
The following locations are regarded as the places best suited for training stations: Newport, Chesapeake Bay near Hampton Roads, Port Royal, Pensacola, San Francisco, San Diego, and Puget Sound near Seattle. San Diego fulfils nearly every requirement, and it being especially adapted to the training of apprentices, the station at San Francisco should be used for training older recruits only. It is unfortunate that a desirable location cannot be secured in the vicinity of New York, as that is the proper place for a large station.
Better results are obtained in training by having recruits of nearly the same age together. Estimating that about 40 per cent will be enlisted as apprentices—between the ages of 16 and T8—it is suggested that recruits be apportioned to the stations.
PERSONNEL FOR TRAINING RECRUITS.
Attention to details and careful supervision are essential to efficient training. At present executive officers of large stations have more work than they can attend to with advantage, and an additional .officer, the next in rank, should be regularly assigned as inspector of all training and ordnance officer. The number of officers and petty officers engaged in training should be in a direct ratio to the number of recruits. The following is suggested as the personnel for training on shore at each station:
GENERAL DUTIES | EACH 200 RECRUITS ON SHORE |
1 commandant | 1 lieutenant |
1 executive | 1 boatswain |
1 inspector of training | 1 gunner |
2 medical officers | 2 chief master-at-arms |
1 paymaster | 1 chief gunner’s mate |
1 boatswain | 1 chief quartermaster |
1 gunner | 1 chief yeoman (schoolmaster) |
1 carpenter | 2 masters-at-arms |
1 sailmaker | 3 gunner’s mates |
1 pharmacist | 3 boatswain’s mates |
1 warrant machinist | 3 quartermasters |
1 chief master-at-arms | 2 ship’s cooks |
4 masters-at-arms | 1 hospital apprentice |
1 sailmaker’s mate |
|
1 commissary steward |
|
1 hospital steward |
|
With such a detail for training, a division of 200 recruits may be divided into squads of 12 for instruction, and an organization for all drills may be easily perfected. This is not an extravagant number of officers and experienced enlisted men to be engaged in this work as is shown by the following comparison of the requirements of training under the proposed system and in the U. S. S. Hartford:
COMPARISON OF COMPLEMENTS UNDER PROPOSED SYSTEM AND IN U.S.S. HARTFORD
Disposition | Commissioned Officers | Warrant Officers | Enlisted Force | |||
Line | Staff | Line | Staff | For Training | Others | |
8 Stations—General Duties | 24 | 32 | 16 | 32 | 56 | 16a |
On Shore—6000 Recruits | 30 |
| 60 |
| 480 | 90 |
23 Brigs—2250 Recruits | 46c | 23 | 46 |
| 253 | 184 |
15 Gunboats—750 Recruits | 15 |
| 15 |
| 75 | 120 |
Total for 9000 Recruits | 115c | 55 | 137 | 32 | 864 | 410a |
U.S.S. Hartford—300 Recruits | 9 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 72b | 119 |
At same rate—9000 Recruits | 270 | 90 | 120 | 90 | 2160b | 3570 |
a—Not including gig's or barge's crew, and artificers, mechanics, musicians, and clerical force, the number of whom will depend upon the conditions at each station. Except the boat's crew, these men do not come from the seaman class, and are not a drain upon the fighting force afloat.
b—Including all men in seaman class stationed on deck.
c—Including 23 midshipmen.
PRELIMINARY TRAINING AFLOAT.
As far as practicable, all training should be under service conditions, and in the preliminary training afloat the life should assimilate that in regular cruising ships. Cruising in blue water was undoubtedly the best way to develop the old-time sailor, but long deep-sea trips do not afford the best facilities for the early training of the modern man-of-war's-man. Night watches make men less ready to undertake an arduous day's work; the inevitable bad weather not only makes systematic training out of the question for days at a time, but it has a most disorganizing effect; so that not even one-half the amount of efficient training can be done at sea that is practicable at anchor or by being underway during the day only. As a rule foreign cruises do not fulfill the object for which they are made. Facilities for sightseeing and training seldom go together, and the every-day discomforts of a crowded sailing ship more than offset the contentment produced by the amount of shore liberty which it is usually Practicable to give. Better results will be obtained by training fewer numbers in smaller ships remaining on our own coast. If these foreign cruises are needed as an inducement for enlisting they should be made in modern ships that reflect credit upon the flag, with recruits that have had sufficient training to know how to conduct themselves properly on shore.
Sailing ships do not offer the proper facilities for carrying out a progressive course of training in gunnery. In the proposed sailing brigs the training should be limited to seamanship, signals, and instruction of a general character. The gunnery vessel attached to each station is intended to supplement the work in gunnery on shore and at the same time give opportunities for practical instruction in the log, lead, compass, and helm. To reduce the amount of time necessary for their care and cleaning, their outfits should be limited to what is essential for the work each class of vessel is intended to perform.
The brigs attached to each station should cruise in squadron in order to gain the benefit of rivalry. In the vicinity of all the stations indicated there are good cruising grounds where they could anchor at night and during bad weather. The gunnery vessels should get under way daily, Saturdays and Sundays excepted, when the weather and other circumstances permit. The regular complements suggested for both classes of vessels have been reduced to the smallest number practicable for training in order that recruits will be forced to do all manual work. The organization should be carried out to minute details in order to insure uniformity and thoroughness.
In order to put the system into effect immediately there are a number of small craft available for gunnery vessels, some of them being used successfully as such now, and the present training ships, with reduced complements, could be assigned to the stations and made use of until the sailings brigs are constructed.
RECEIVING SHIPS.
Receiving ships or barracks will continue to be needed at navy yards to give the necessary accommodation to the enlisted force required to man the commandant's barge and yard tugs, to fire salutes, and for various emergencies such as fires. Their necessity having been established, they naturally become recruiting stations; in order to facilitate filling vacancies in ships at the navy yard at short notice, enlisted men, other than recruits of the seaman class, awaiting transfer to general service should be quartered there.
Some of these navy yards offer good facilities for training, as the ones at Norfolk and Mare Island, but it is not in the interest of efficient work to have the training of recruits depend in any way upon the constantly changing character and number of men in receiving ships, and landsmen for training should be continued there only until regular training stations can be established.
These receiving stations should be provided with facilities for the first training of all recruits not in the seaman class, and for the profitable employment of the time of the older men awaiting transfer. Before transfer to the general service, recruits should be taught to swim, and all training stations and receiving ships should be provided with swimming tanks for this purpose. With the proposed change in the enlistment record the particular needs of each man will be evident, and can be attended to at this time. In this as in other parts of the training officers must be detailed for its proper supervision and direction.
GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE SYSTEM.
The system outlined in the succeeding pages aims at uniform, thorough, progressive training of all ratings from landsman to chief petty officer; uniformity not only in drills and methods of instruction, but also in privileges, punishments, qualifications for ratings, and organization and internal regulations of ships so as to remove some of the present uncertainties of the career; a system that aims at complete and perfect training but is sufficiently elastic for the varying conditions of the service.
The success of this depends upon more perfect central control; better organization; outlining work for each branch and each step of training and clearly defining results expected; improved methods and facilities for training; better subdivision of work by making every ship in commission a training ship, and, as far as practicable, having everyone on board connected With the training and contributing directly to the fighting efficiency; better development of esprit de corps; better development of the petty officer as leader and instructor; establishing standard qualifications for each rating; offering inducements and providing a career that will attract recruits of excellent character and retain them in the service when trained.
While gunnery is recognized as the one great element of naval efficiency, and the closest attention is given to every detail in training that adds directly to efficient gun-fire, the minor factors, which tend to prepare the personnel for the day of battle, and upon which the highest state of excellence in gunnery depends, are not overlooked.
PERSONNEL OF TRAINING STAFF.
A system of training having been adopted, the officer, under the Chief of the Bureau of Navigation, who is charged with the direct control of the recruiting and training of the enlisted force, should be selected with some regard for fitness as holds in the case of heads of departments for development of material. It is desirable that he should be an officer in sympathy with the work, with rank commensurate with the responsibility so that his decisions in all matters of detail would be readily accepted as final. To give this office proper standing and make it sought for by officers of ability, the head of this staff should be ex officio a member of the General Board. This will keep him in touch with the general needs of the service, and with his knowledge of the condition of the enlisted personnel, he will be a valuable addition to the board. The most competent officer available should be selected, given every possible facility for the work, and held responsible for results obtained. He should have the assistance of a staff sufficiently large for the efficient general direction and supervision of all training.
There should be rotation of officers and petty officers engaged in the early training so as to insure proper regard for the ever changing conditions in the general service, and in fighting ships to secure a better general understanding of the possibilities and limitations of this preliminary training. The regular complements at the shore stations and of training vessels should be made up of experienced men of good character. Under the proposed system of squad instruction a relatively large number of petty officers will be engaged in this early training as, at this time, discipline should be strict and instruction thorough. But it is expected that the petty officers will return to the general service at the end of stated periods much benefited from the training they themselves receive during this time.
In view of the demand for experienced men in the regular service, the number engaged in early training could be considerably reduced by so regulating transfers that at all times one-half of the men under training will have progressed far enough to be an efficient nucleus for the organization, thus making the system continuous. Recruits joining an older organization take their tone from their more experienced comrades, from whom they acquire much practical information that cannot be readily taught or learned otherwise. There are many who question the advisability of thus mixing new and older Material, but at the Newport training station it has been tried for several years with excellent results, and when the effect of such mingling is unsatisfactory the training is of doubtful efficiency.
Some chaplains have been quick to recognize their wide field for work in the service and are rendering valuable assistance. From their position they ought to be an important factor in the development of the mental and moral faculties of recruits, and to this end their duties should be more clearly defined. Properly qualified yeomen should be detailed to assist them in their duties and give such instruction in elementary English studies as may seem expedient.
ORGANIZATION.
The whole machinery of the navy dealing with the enlisted Personnel should be thoroughly reorganized with clearly defined duties and responsibilities. The formation of a General Board has made this more feasible. The extra labor required to raise the standards in the service will be slight if properly distributed and systematically performed. In making this new division of Work fighting efficiency should be the guiding principle. The Chief of Bureau of Navigation is the natural head of all Military training, but his numerous other important duties make it necessary for him to have the assistance of the training staff, already indicated, to take charge of all matters of detail relating to the enlisted force. The staff should have duties similar to the recently appointed inspectors of target practice. They Should supervise the allowance of equipment for training; see that drill instructions and material correspond; lay out the Work for all branches of training, and select the conditions best suited for every stage of the work, submitting both to commanding officers for suggestions as to desirable changes. They should be kept informed of all matters relating to condition of training stations and training ships and other facilities which may affect character of work done. The preparation and dissemination of press notices of incidents reflecting credit upon the enlisted men of the navy, or showing the better side of naval life, should be provided for.
It should also be the duty of this staff to study the needs of the service with regard to enlisted personnel. The opinions of officers of experience should be sought upon important subjects, and suggestions for changes in the system should receive careful cpnsideration and be promptly acted upon, thus securing co-operation and encouraging individual efforts for improvement of methods. Advantage should be taken of every opportunity to investigate systems of training in foreign navies. Many valuable lessons have been learned from them in the past, and inquiry into their present strenuous efforts to improve personnel abroad should be made with the same zeal as the study of changes in material.
The general character of efficient organizations for shore stations, sailing brigs, and gunnery vessels was indicated in the discussions of the facilities for the early training.
Fighting efficiency depends directly upon efficient training, and in fighting ships facility for training should be the guiding principle in stationing the crew. As far as practicable everyone should be in the fighting organization and should have duties in connection with the training that will ensure interest in the daily work.
The high state of efficiency of the old navy was due to the completeness of the watch, quarter, and station bill and the traditions and customs of the service which provided for every detail of ship life. In the new navy there have been most efficient organizations in individual ships, but they have been of a widely different character, even in vessels of the same type. All should be carefully studied and the points of excellence of each incorporated in a standard organization to be used in all vessels as far as practicable. Supplying ships, about to be commissioned, with a draft of an organization, that has been successfully tried in vessels of the same class, will relieve executive officers of the necessity of working out the same problem independently, requiring much time when it cannot be well spared. The adoption of such a standard station bill and a uniform system of general alarms and bugle calls will reduce to a great extent the confusion incidental to placing a ship in commission and the general discontent and wholesale desertions which result usually.
The "quadrantal system of organization" successfully tried in the Oregon is adapted to any type of vessel from a gunboat to a battleship; it was found to work very well in a sailing training ship. In that system the powder division was made up of the idlers as is customary in all ships, but there was no navigator's division. The boatswain's mates, quartermasters, signal men, buglers, and men required to handle the vessel at general quarters under way were known as the "navigator's detail," but were regularly assigned to the gun divisions, and attended all divisional drills and instruction. A seaman standing quartermaster's watch made the duty easier so that the quartermasters could take part in the drills without being overworked. They were of much assistance in the instruction of the lower ratings, and by keeping up in the drills and exercises their Sphere of general usefulness was enlarged. Such an arrangement is particularly adapted to the new course of training in gunnery. It should be adopted in all vessels as the navigator is able to give his division little personal attention during the drill periods, and most promising petty officers stationed in the navigator's division are apt to stagnate.
With a well drilled, well disciplined crew the care of the ship should give little trouble, and where efficiency in training must be sacrificed to keep a ship in proper condition either the vessel is poorly adapted to the work or there is lack of proper organization.
EQUIPMENT.
The equipment for training should afford every facility for making drills and instruction interesting and practical and for Obtaining best results for time employed. Training stations and training ships should be so fitted out that they may be made comfortable and attractive, and easily kept clean. The best equipment is none too good to give the recruit a correct idea of things being ship-shape when his character is forming. At the outset his surroundings should be such as to make him proud of his position. Results obtained will justify the additional expense incurred.
The many excellent schemes to illustrate and facilitate instruction that have been devised in various branches of the service should be made known generally, and the necessary outfits or material to make them should be furnished. Complete sets of professional books, and elementary school books, should be supplied and made easily available to the crew. Every possible facility should be afforded the enlisted man to improve his professional standing. Provision should be made also for furnishing suitable athletic outfits and such other articles as tend to promote health and contentment. There should be an additional allowance of such articles of equipment as are needed in the systematic instruction of large squads; also of such parts of the ordnance outfit as are frequently used for instructional purposes and are liable to become less efficient for general use.
Such stowage space should be provided for all articles in the equipment for training that they may be easily reached at all times. Their proper use should be unrestricted, and indulgence should be shown in case of accidental injury. Provision should be made for replacing broken or missing articles with the least delay practicable, and the responsibility for its condition should be defined by regulation. Ships fitting out should not be reported ready until this part of her equipment is received.
RECRUITING AND ENLISTMENTS.
Under existing conditions about 14,000 recruits are required yearly. All should be bona fide American citizens, as the retention of aliens in the service will always be regarded as a sign of weakness. The number of American seamen that may be obtained from the merchant marine is so small that it may be disregarded in considering means for recruiting the seaman branch. So eventually this branch of the enlisted force must be made up of men who have received their early training in the service, and their usefulness will depend upon the efficiency of the system under which they are trained.
The good material obtained from districts in the interior shows the wisdom of the establishment of recruiting officers in inland towns instead of restricting them to barge seaports, where the navy was regarded as a convenient asylum for waifs and questionable characters. Recruits must have healthy minds as well as healthy bodies, and rural districts offer the best field for recruiting young men of this class.
The present system of recruiting is generally regarded as efficient and satisfactory, though in a few cases the large percentage of bad physiques and degenerates in drafts arriving at receiving ships and training stations indicates lack of care or attempt at record making. Reject inferior men who present themselves for enlistment, discharge immediately bad characters in the service, and very soon the increased respectability of the ship's company will not only attract the kind of young men the service needs but will retain many of the desirable ones who fail to re-enlist now. Modifying the present regulations relating to first enlistments in some minor particulars would work to the advantage of the service. As soon as the state of the personnel permits reduce the maximum age of landsmen to 22 so as to have a homogeneous class of recruits, and restrict first enlistments to American citizens; the other qualifications of an applicant should have little weight compared with citizenship if we are to regard "love of country as the soul of a navy." Also restrict first enlistments in seaman branch to the lowest ratings; this will prevent many of the fraudulent re-enlistments of deserters and men discharged with bad records who now succeed in getting back in the service as ordinary seamen or seamen. Men discharged as undesirable should not be allowed under any circumstances to re-enlist.
At the time of enlistment, when every move is full of significance to the recruit, there should be nothing done that later on may seem like breach of faith. The recruiting officer should not only read and explain the meaning of the shipping articles and oath of allegiance, but he should make clear the present condition of ship life and show the future prospects in their true light. Failure to do this has resulted in the recruiting of many Young men who rightly feel that they were attracted by false inducements; the great majority of them leave after considerable time and expense in training, and the rest are usually discontented.
TIME AVAILABLE FOR ROUTINE DRILLS.
Under the best conditions, three to four hours daily, Saturdays and Sundays excepted, is as much time as can be given profitably in fighting ships to routine drill and instruction. Bad weather, coaling ship, holidays, and other unavoidable circumstances will reduce the time available so that in a six months' cruise about 300 hours of systematic training will be practicable. This does not include the afternoons weekly usually given to overhauling battery and to care of clothing, nor the time for fire quarters and night general quarters. While small, this amount of time properly employed ought to produce the desired state of efficiency in the course of a few years; if exceeded, in attempting to remedy existing defects, the added drill will be gained at the expense of the general condition of the ship or the contentment of an overworked crew. At best routine drills are irksome, and when men are fatigued interest lags and discontent soon follows.
The amount of time set apart each day for the care and cleaning of the ship should be ample. The details of the systematic performance of this work should receive the same careful attention as any other part of the training.
At shore stations the available time for routine drills and instruction is about six hours. In ships under sail, and recruits standing night watches, only two to three hours' training daily should be given in addition to the usual amount of work in handling sails.
ALLOTMENT OF TIME.
It is not enough that crews of ships should be able to perform their respective duties efficiently. The training should not be regarded as having reached a satisfactory state until every man knows all the duties in the ship performed by men of his rating, and in case of a casualty there is at least one other man prepared to fill the vacancy without materially affecting the fighting efficiency of the organization. Such standard of ship efficiency requires that the scope and relative value of each branch be most carefully considered in order to employ the small amount of available time to the greatest advantage.
There is much diversity of opinion as to the proper character and scope of nearly every branch of the training. What is considered essential by some is regarded as of little importance by others. Whatever the expense or apparent lack of economy of time, the ultimate efficiency of the whole enlisted force should decide these questions.
Following out the principle of not increasing the time devoted to routine training, but employing it better, one of the first and most important steps in laying out the work is to decide upon the necessary and practical, eliminating the obsolete and useless training. Broadsword and pistol drills should be done away with until a satisfactory state of efficiency is reached. Clearing ship for action and general quarters in old style sailing ships seem time wasted.
The character of the training will be influenced by conditions not always similar; but there are certain essentials of a general character that may be taught under all conditions, and these should be taught without fail. The minor points, too, each of little importance by itself, but all contributing to general efficiency, should not be overlooked. It is this completeness which will make a system of great value.
As far as practicable all training should be in regular cruising ships under service conditions. Itineraries should be laid out with a view of insuring favorable conditions for each part of the work. The part that can be done to the greatest advantage under the circumstances, should be continuous until its full scope is reached.
It is evident that the desirable knowledge that the average enlisted man should possess cannot be acquired in the first six months or year of his service. One of the great mistakes has been to attempt to crowd in too much during the brief period of early training. The work should be distributed through the various grades up to chief petty officer, giving the men in each rating only such systematic training as to enable them to perform efficiently all the duties of the rating held, and to prepare them to undertake those of the next higher. This anticipates special training for men in each of the lower ratings as a part of the regular routine, and such individual instruction of petty officers as they may require.
In laying out the work the ground to be covered in each stage should be limited to what can be thoroughly mastered in the time allotted. There is as much danger from attempting too Much as too little. Proficiency should be required in every branch, especially during the early training, so that everyone may become accustomed to high standards. Men weary of repetitions of drill and exercises, but usually they show proper interest when anything new is introduced. So it is better to progress less rapidly but thoroughly, rendering only occasional reviews necessary, and leaving something to awaken interest in the future. The work in each general subject should be continuous until a certain degree of proficiency is reached. Drills by weekly routine are adapted only to crews whose training may be said to be finished, where the object of the exercise is to keep up a high state of efficiency already attained.
Instruction and drill do not constitute the entire training. The time allotted for ship work and self-attention, much greater than that given to routine exercises, must be so employed as to familiarize the men with a manner of life that will insure health, contentment, and efficiency afloat. This part of the training has been neglected, and it must receive much attention if the best results are to be obtained. Hours of recreation should be as well marked as drill periods and during leisure time every opportunity should be given the ambitious for self advancement.
For reasons already stated one year is considered the length of time that should be devoted to training preliminary to transfer to general service. This part of the training should aim at improving the physique, securing contentment, and arousing interest of recruits. Having due regard for the ultimate purpose of a navy—to shoot guns and hit the mark—it is suggested that one-third of the time for routine exercises be devoted to gunnery, one-third to seamanship, the remaining third to signals and training of a general character. The course in each branch should be such as to prepare thoroughly qualified ordinary seamen and apprentices second class for transfer to the general service.
In the general service at least one-half of the time should be devoted to gunnery, one-quarter to seamanship, and the remaining to miscellaneous exercises. This division of time to obtain for all enlisted men of the seaman class, excepting petty officers who hold ratings that require training of a special character.
The seaman gunner's class should be made up of men who, as gunner's mates, have shown practically that they are fitted for the advanced courses at the Torpedo Station and Gun Factory, which should insure all the mechanical training that gunners and chief gunner's mates require for the efficient care of the battery and ordnance outfit.
PERIODS.
The time allotted to any part of the training should be actually given at successive periods, drill and instruction alternating when practicable, so as to distribute the physical work. To avoid confusion and facilitate preparation in advance, prearranged schedules should be followed strictly when possible.
The periods should be forty-five minutes long in order that the work may be carried on with snap and interest may not lag. Two periods may be taken together for the drills requiring longer time. Four periods with fifteen minutes' oral instruction or physical drill at evening quarters, is as much as men and officers can stand day after day under the best conditions. In the general service one of the two periods of instruction should be for the special training of petty officers; the other, in ships With well drilled crews, should be restricted to men who are backward. The drill periods should be from 9.35 to 10.20 a. m. and 1.30 to 2.15 p. m., the periods of instruction from 10.45 to 11.30 a. m. and 2.30 to 3.15 p.m. In suggesting such a routine it is assumed that the ship's work will be completed before morning quarters, that the drills and the forenoon instruction will be conducted by divisional officers, while the afternoon instruction will be turned over to petty officers under the general supervision of the divisional officers. By such an arrangement petty officers will get the training and employment so much needed; there will be an incentive to do well to escape the extra Period designed to bring the dull and backward up to the standard: and divisional officers, relieved of many petty details of the training, will have more time to devote to more important matters for which there is little opportunity at present.
METHODS.
Results in drill and instruction depend as much upon methods employed as upon amount of time given. Under the changed Conditions and with the less extended period of training old methods cannot be expected to give the same results as formerly, and others must be devised. Careful study should be made of those tried successfully in different ships and shore stations, both at home and abroad. The methods best suited to present conditions should be adopted and, in the form of circulars or hand-books, descriptions of them should be issued as aids and guides to all engaged in training.
The character of the men under training must be considered. The greater part have untrained minds and little ability for concentrating the mind. Lectures should be eliminated and every means possible should be adopted to make instruction practical and interesting. At the beginning of each period, attention should be called to the salient points of the exercise and its bearing upon the general training, in order that the men may have a clear understanding at the outset of what they are doing. Grading men for instruction according to rating will be the best means of bringing together those who possess about the same degree of knowledge and aptitude for learning. Squads for instruction should be as small as possible, and not over twenty men each.
In order to secure uniformity, thoroughness, and completeness the whole course of training should be outlined, and the work in each general subject, in each stage, should be given in detail, and issued to the service in hand-books of convenient size for daily use. The various hand-books should also be bound as one volume and issued to ships for use as reference books.
A hand-book which the writer found well adapted to the work in gunnery at the Newport Training Station was in the form of detailed instructions for the petty officers, who did most of the instructing. For the work of each period these instructions were divided into three parts—first, "Preparation," giving the reference books to be consulted, part of drill book to be followed, and equipment to be provided; second, "Outline" of the drill or instruction so as to preclude any doubt of clearness; third, "Questions" that would bring out the important points. The scope was such that it could be covered in about a half hour, the rest of the period being used in asking the questions. This not only shows to what extent the men grasp the meaning of the work but it also develops their thinking powers. All reference books, drill books, regulations, general orders, and equipment that had a bearing on the work were provided for the use of the instructors, and were in constant use. As a result the apprentices not only made excellent progress, but in the course of a year several of the instructors took advantage of the opportunity afforded, and prepared themselves for the examination for acting gunner, passing it successfully without exception.
Hand-books of the same general character have been used in some foreign navies for many years, and their introduction in our own service has been suggested frequently. The amount of work involved in their preparation is so great that it can only be performed properly by distributing it among a number of officers whose experience in the various branches has fitted them for the work. Hand-books should receive from time to time such modifications as their use has shown to be desirable, or improvement of equipment necessitates.
As far as possible all training should be under service conditions, using service equipment. When this is not practicable, models, plans, drawings, photographs, stereopticons, blackboard sketches and other similar means should be used to make instruction clearer and more interesting.
To get the best results, self-interest, pride, and enthusiasm must be made use of to secure a spirit of emulation between units of individual ships as well as between different ships. Boats' crews, guns' crews, divisions, and companies should all be aroused to good work by competition. But in encouraging this Spirit of rivalry care should be taken that apparent superiority is not gained at the expense of thoroughness.
ABSENCE FROM DRILL.
Failures are usually due not to misconceptions but to faulty execution. This applies especially to any system of naval training, where details must be worked out under such varied conditions. In order to secure its success it must be clearly understood that all other work is subordinate to efficient drill and instruction; change of organization or routine should be made, to remove impediments to the work of training. The smart appearance that has always characterized American ships should be sacrificed to efficient training if necessary, but that ought not to be the case, as well drilled crews and well kept ships usually go together.
It is not advantageous to have a considerable part of a military organization excused from systematic instruction of a military character, as it must result in stagnation in that part which will reflect discredit upon the whole. Steps should be taken to reduce the untrained force when there is such a tendency to specialize at the expense of general usefulness. In nearly every ship there is a considerable number of the most intelligent petty officers who are excused from all except general drills, presumably on account of the fatiguing nature of their work, or in order to give it their undivided attention. This may be in the interest of the department to which they belong, but it is not always best for the general efficiency of the ship. The deck force available for care and cleaning of the ship is far in excess of the requirements, and a different division of ship work should be made so that masters-at-arms, quartermasters, yeomen, and mechanics may have more routine training.
The recently organized commissary system has relieved the service of one evil, but there is danger of the considerable force, essential to its success, becoming a point of weakness in every ship through lack of training. It would seem a far better plan to detail mess men from the lower ratings month about, the number of men so detailed to be sufficient to do the work properly without being absent from routine drills. Good service will be insured by detailing men regularly as "strikers" just previous to their detail as mess men.
After removing all causes for absence as far as practicable, there still remain many such duties as belong to quartermasters, signalmen, sentries, boat crews and lookouts, that must be performed at all times. For some of these, men belonging to the special class may be used during drill periods. Sentries should be detailed for a period of not over one month, and there should be double crews for steam launches and similar details so as to secure the presence of everyone at quarters at least half of the time; and a minimum number of hours of systematic training quarterly for each class should be prescribed.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT.
Fighting efficiency depends so much upon the general state of health that the physical development of recruits and physical condition of the whole enlisted force should be the first consideration. Drills in sailing ships will contribute much to the Physical development of recruits considering the length of service in these vessels, but the number so engaged are only a small part of the whole, and other means must be devised to this end. Such drills as infantry and artillery on shore, and boats under oars provide good physical exercise, but the men who need it most, those stationed below, are not usually assigned to boats or companies, and gymnastics on more extended lines than the present physical drill should be adopted for use in the regular cruising ships.
Athletics and sports should receive systematic encouragement. There should be race-boat crews, baseball and football teams in every ship; the supply of athletic goods should be liberal and every opportunity afforded for using them. At all shore stations recreation grounds should be laid out, and the environments should be such as to induce men to spend much of their leisure time at sports and games.
Physical development must be regarded as one of the essential parts of systematic training in order to secure the endurance that will stand the strain of a protracted war. The decline of the general health of our men during the Spanish war may be recalled; also that the reason assigned for the beaching of the Cristobal Colon was the certainty of capture on account of the fire-room force of that vessel in their weakened condition being unable to keep up a full head of steam. Nothing should be left undone that may tend to prepare us for such a test of endurance in the future when even more may depend on the outcome.
DEVELOPMENT OF PETTY OFFICERS.
The better general development of the petty officer is essential to our future naval efficiency. The present lack of officers must continue for some years, and enlisted men must be detailed for important duties, and in event of war heavy responsibilities might devolve upon them through casualties. While there are some excellent petty officers, and a majority perform their respective duties satisfactorily, as a class they have slight general knowledge and are not the leaders so much needed. The necessity of special training for petty officers is generally recognized, but at present divisional officers have little time for their systematic instruction apart from the rest of the division.
The success of any system of naval training and the development of the petty officer are mutually dependent. Thoroughness can only be attained by attention to details which officers of large divisions cannot give without reducing the scope of their work. Much of the preliminary training and detailed instruction should be turned over to competent petty officers under the supervision of divisional officers. This will give officers more time for the individual training of petty officers and for other important matters relating to the improvement of the enlisted personnel.
Intelligence and force are the essential natural qualities that a petty officer should possess. Leadership must be developed by proper employment as squad leader and instructor. While performing these duties they should be closely watched and their mistakes pointed out. Their training in some points should be so clear as not to admit of misunderstanding; they should be made to appreciate the important position which they fill in ship life; the influence of their example in showing to superiors a spirit of subordination and co-operation, while demanding the same of men under their charge. They should be instructed as to the proper manner of giving orders; their responsibility in seeing orders executed quickly and quietly, as a rule directing others rather than doing the work themselves. They should understand that they have a duty in contributing to the contentment of the crew, and should be the leaders in sports and amusements as well as in the work. Every facility should be given petty officers to keep posted and prepare themselves for advancement.
The availability of petty officers as instructors should be considered in arranging watch, quarter, and station bills, so that squads for systematic training may be as small as possible. All petty officers of the seaman branch should be available for this duty, and the division of the ship's work should be such as to insure it. The staff of quartermasters and signalmen, made up of the most intelligent men in the service, should be increased in number so as to make it practicable for them to take a more active part in the training, both as instructors and in receiving instruction, without adding to the amount of their work. Masters-at-arms are properly included in the seaman class, and they should be in fact what they are in name. The peculiar regard in which they are held enhances their fitness as instructors, and in every ship their number should be considerably increased, taking the places of marines if necessary to prevent overcrowding. The advantage of such an arrangement has been demonstrated in small ships. The development of such a large corps of instructors will make drills and exercises practicable in receiving ships and in other places where little or no training can be given now for want of proper leaders to take charge of the squads.
DEVELOPMENT OF ESPRIT DE CORPS.
"Esprit de corps is the moral foundation of the edifice of naval efficiency as well as the inspiration of individual success. Where esprit de corps is present the ship is harmonious and well disciplined; where it is absent, discord and inefficiency prevail. Sound organization demands the concurrent efforts of all towards a common end, the good of the service, in other words, the recognition and guidance of esprit de corps. The seaman's art is valueless and his education incomplete without it. There is no part of an officer's obligation and duties more vitally essential than the cultivation of this cardinal principle." Cannot the same be said to apply to the enlisted man, and will not proper development of esprit de corps be the means of solving many of the Problems concerning the enlisted personnel? The responsibility for such development cannot be fixed as in other branches of the training on account of the diverse elements that enter into it, but the cultivation of this sound, healthy spirit among the men should be provided for.
Two of the chief advantages claimed for sail and spar training are its bearing upon the formation of character and the development of manly qualities. These depend as much upon environments, enforcing discipline, encouraging comradeship, and stimulating ambition by proper recognition of good work, as upon the character of the drills. Conceding that activity aloft produces all the results claimed for it, there is still much left to provide for in the way of developing all the faculties—mental, moral, and physical—while imparting knowledge.
During the early training specific knowledge of a technical nature should not monopolize the attention of recruits. The drills and exercises should be given with a view of inspiring respect for authority and securing alacrity in the performance of duty. Recruits should learn the power of united action, and become accustomed to working with others, under others. It is the cheery "Aye, aye, sir," with prompt and implicit obedience, that is so much needed in the service to-day.
Many of our shortcomings are due to lack of military purpose in training, and there is need of co-operation in every part of the service to improve the general bearing of the men. While not wishing to introduce the question of the advisability of having marine guards on board ship, it is pertinent to call attention to the value of having a large number of the seaman branch engaged in enforcing strict discipline without depending upon another arm of the military service for support. Sentry duty on board ship is a most valuable means of developing in the landsman and apprentice a sense of duty and regard for military authority. Under properly qualified masters-at-arms the performance of such military duty could be made a valuable part of the training. Bulletin boards or other means should be used to insure a clear understanding of such duties, and a strict performance of them required. In order to indicate men on duty, and serve as a badge of authority, a neat belt, to which a bayonet or cutlass may be attached, should be worn by quartermasters and messengers on watch, by coxswains in charge of boats away from the ship, and by all other men while performing military duty.
From the start men should be placed in positions requiring them to take the initiative, demand obedience and accept responsibility. Detail them as acting coxswains, squad leaders at infantry and artillery drills, and place them in charge of working parties. Require them not only to learn the use of articles of equipment but how to take care of them. This part of the training should receive careful supervision and mistakes pointed out with much patience, as recruits are easily discouraged by any show of lack of confidence. The stimulating influence of competition should be made use of whenever possible to awaken enthusiasm and incite eagerness to be foremost in everything, and every means should be adopted to foster sentiments of loyalty to ship and service. Success inspires the mutual respect and confidence, which insures hearty co-operation of all officers and men; and ship pride is essential to ship efficiency.
GUNNERY.
At last gunnery is receiving the attention it deserves, and the time does not seem distant when a ship's efficiency will be gauged by her record target practice. The instructions recently issued, and improvements under consideration, provide a thorough progressive course in gunnery which affords a proper foundation for the building-tip of a general system of training. The work in the other branches should be laid out so that each will contribute as much as possible to improvement of gun-fire and fighting efficiency. This involves consideration of time and conditions most favorable for each stage of the training in gunnery. As far as practicable it should be done in fighting ships under service conditions, but, as pointed out already, shore stations provided with rifle ranges and small gunnery vessels offer special advantages for the training prescribed for the "Preliminary Class" in both small arms and great guns. The greater attention that can be given to more advanced training in gunnery in the general service will more than compensate for the additional time for early training required by such a protracted course of target practice. Gunnery vessels, other than those assigned to shore stations, will not be required. With more efficient preliminary training, development of petty officers competent to assist in the work, and the elimination of drills given better on shore, there ought to be time in fighting ships to complete the training of gun-captains and gun-pointers.
While the individual training of gun-captains and gun-pointers is the all important work, the necessary drills and instruction should not be overlooked. Under supervision that will prevent injury of material, guns' crews should acquire by progressive instruction such practicable knowledge of the care and manipulation of guns and mounts as may be of possible use in time of battle. Restricting to a large gunner's gang the entire care of the battery, aside from polishing bright work, may keep the battery in fine condition, but it is at the expense of the general efficiency of the crew. Before using any part of the ordnance outfit men should know how to handle it properly.
Instruction in ordnance should be limited to what is essential for the intelligent care and handling of guns and ammunition; as far as practicable, it should be given in connection with gunnery exercises so that it may be both practical and progressive. Its character for the different ratings should depend upon their duties at general quarters, but there is much instruction of a general character that should be given to all enlisted men. A little time each week properly employed is all that is needed for this.
All gunnery drills should assimilate battle conditions. To neglect filling the division tub or issuing tourniquets at general quarters seems a trifling matter, but when needed in actual service the tub may be found to be leaky and sufficient tourniquets lacking. Short, spirited drills have an excellent effect -upon a ship's company, but in working for a record care should be taken that efficiency may not be sacrificed to celerity.
INFANTRY AND ARTILLERY.
Infantry and artillery drills have no place in a ship's routine. Equipping and forming companies and battalion, and the manual of arms may be done on board ship, but as a rule this part of the training should be done on shore. The necessary attention to these drills should be given during the early training, and at such times as ships may be ordered to ports offering the required facilities—at least once a year. When this occurs a plan of progressive drills should be laid out for the time available so as to give officers an opportunity to prepare their respective commands for the general drills before battalion and brigade evolutions are attempted. Naval battalions landed to protect life and property require able squad leaders, and during the preliminary exercises much attention should be given to the practical training of petty officers for this duty.
Ship's battalions should be organized for actual service with an efficient nucleus of the crew remaining on board to perform any duty that may be necessary. For parades such changes in the regular organization could be made as may seem desirable.
In receiving ships and at shore stations infantry and artillery drills can be used to great advantage in breaking in recruits, preventing slouchy condition of men awaiting transfer, and in exercising petty officers in their duties as squad leaders.
SIGNALS.
Next to well trained gun crews the fighting efficiency of the enlisted force demands a well trained staff of quartermasters and signalmen. The formation of a regular signal corps at present does not seem either necessary or expedient, but the selection and training of men of good character and superior intelligence for this branch of the seaman class demands especial attention on account of the large number of torpedo boats and other small craft which require quartermasters, qualified for responsible duties, to assist the small number of officers assigned to these vessels.
Quartermasters not only should know all about signaling, and the practical use of the helm, log, lead, and compass, but they should be trained seamen and have a general knowledge of man-of-war life. To get men with the desired qualifications they should be selected from the petty officers of the seaman class who have received only general training up to the time of selection. This duty is not popular with the men at present on account of the arduous work; and in order that the pay may correspond to the duties performed, all quartermasters standing watch should be petty officers first class. Quartermasters should be assigned to the gun divisions that they may assist in the instruction of the lower ratings in signals, and receive such individual training as they may need.
Signalmen should be selected from the ratings below coxswain; that there may be a sufficient number of properly qualified men to choose from, $2.00 per month additional compensation should be allowed every man of the seaman class who qualifies and continues proficient in signaling, as shown by such quarterly examination as may be prescribed. Yeomen stationed on deck at general quarters should be required to qualify in Signals on account of the possible assistance they might give the signal staff in battle.
Complete signal outfits should be supplied with special view of their being utilized in instruction. Manuals should be prepared containing in condensed form such part of the introduction to the general signal book not confidential, and such other special information as quartermasters and signalmen should know. At training stations and in receiving ships every facility should be afforded men of the seaman class under instruction or awaiting transfer to improve their knowledge of signals, especially after the adoption of wireless telegraphy.
SEAMANSHIP.
The art of seamanship cannot be reduced to rules, but the acquirement of a practical knowledge of the essential parts should be systematic, as now there is neither the long apprenticeship nor enforced opportunities of the old navy in which to gain it, and the handy resourceful seaman must be trained up in other ways.
In addition to such sail and spar training as may be considered advisable, the course in seamanship should insure a thorough, practical knowledge of the following: helm; log; lead; compass; nautical terms commonly used; names and chief characteristics of all kinds of vessels and boats; names of parts of ship and ship fittings; knots, hitches, bends, seizings, and splices of practical use in modern ships; kinds and special uses of different kinds of rope and small stuff; blocks and purchases in common use, with the advantage or power gained from each; palm and needle; kinds of canvas and the proper care of it; boat equipments and fittings; pulling a good oar; steering a boat by compass and by range; care and handling of boats under oars and sail under all conditions; boat salutes; lowering life-boats and use of life-buoys; rules of the road with special reference to boats; running lights; fog signals; buoys; lighthouses; tides and currents; and ground tackle. In view of the relative value of the strictly military training which fighting efficiency demands, and the brief average length of service of men in the seaman class—less than four years—it is not expedient to attempt to crowd in anything more.
The number of officers who consider experience in masted ships an essential part of the training of a modern man-of-war's man is rapidly decreasing, the most decided change of opinion being among those who have served very recently in cruising training ships. But among the adherents to sail and spar training for recruits there are a number of progressive officers, whose standing in the service is such that their views should be considered. While there is such a division of opinion it may not be a wise move to do away with sails completely in the preliminary training. But the limitations of this part of the training must be recognized; there is neither the time nor incentive for turning out the efficient sailing ship crews of a few years ago when seamanship was the major part of a man-of-war's man's education.
The greater part of the efficiency of sailing ships for training seamen is in a great measure due to the necessity of a well drilled, well disciplined crew to meet emergencies in which the safety of the ship may be involved. Self-preservation and self-interest act as stimuli towards gaining the efficiency that will insure security. As soon as some equally advantageous incentive can be found for drills in mastless ships, then in a great measure the necessity for sails and spars for training will have ceased. With war impending there would be no difficulty in finding it, but in peace time there seems but one solution of the matter—arouse enthusiasm by competition, with liberal reward and recognition for those who excel.
The training in masted ships having for its chief object the development of physique and the formation of character, the drills and exercises in these vessels should be exclusively of such nature as to get the best results from activity aloft. Gymnastics and sword exercises are not needed, artillery is out of place for lack of room to drill properly, and infantry must be limited to the manual for the same reason; great gun target practice cannot be held in accordance with the regulations and seldom to advantage. So it would seem expedient to reduce the time Spent in this class of ships to three months, devoting the entire time to seamanship, with an occasional infantry drill to brace up the recruits, and sub-caliber target practice with small rapid-fire guns carried for this purpose. Restrict the course in sail and spar training to what can be thoroughly mastered in the limited time allowed, and progress slowly so that every drill and exercise may be carried on with the dash and snap that is the Primary cause of having them, working always quickly and quietly to the boatswain's pipe.
The character of the instruction in seamanship and the amount of time to be devoted to it during the preliminary training have already been stated. In the general service it should be continued until each man in the seaman class becomes proficient in the essentials named. Every opportunity should be given the men to gain practical experience, the details for seaman duties such as helmsmen and leadsmen being frequently changed. More important than all else is that the regulation providing boat drill for all enlisted men should be carried out. Boats should be exercised under adverse circumstances so that the men may learn from experience what to do in emergencies and what chances to take. At present the greater part of the training of boats' crews is either under the direction of inexperienced coxswains, or it takes the form of fleet drill during which the attention of officers is for the most part taken up in reading signals.
ENGLISH.
In respect to facilities afforded ambitious enlisted men to make up for lack of early education our service is far behind other naval powers. A false impression exists, even among some naval officers, as to the character and extent of the instruction in the elementary English studies that the apprentice training system provides. During the few months that recruits are at training stations little progress can be made towards providing a common school education unless the facilities are much improved and a considerable portion of the time is devoted to that exclusively. The provision for the instruction of the illiterate on board ships is too general to be effective. Fortunately few who cannot read and write are to be found among the crews, but there should be none.
The lack of a good course in the elementary English studies seems sufficient reason for raising the age limit of recruits to 16 and for making the educational qualifications for enlistment higher. Even then the service should afford facilities for self-improvement in this respect. School books should be supplied to crews' libraries and made available during recreation hours, and provision should be made for giving such assistance to those needing or wishing it as the good of the service dictates; compulsory attendance at instruction of this kind is of doubtful value. In some foreign services a school master is still employed for this duty on board ship.
At opportune times, such as long winter evenings, a course of simple lectures should be given, and illustrated by stereopticon views when practicable, that the enlisted men may know something of the history of our country, especially the history of our navy, get an insight into the character of our government, its advantages and our individual responsibilities, and other matters of a similar nature. This would not only afford amusement but also inspire respect for our institutions, pride in our resources, love for the flag, and loyalty to the service. Its influence upon seamen of foreign birth would be most beneficial.
FIRST AID AND HYGIENE.
That a thorough practical knowledge of the use of the various articles supplied for first aid to wounded, and that the health of the crew may be safeguarded as much as possible, there should be systematic instruction carried out under the supervision of medical officers. One who has been most successful in this work suggests the following course, which for convenience is divided into six lectures, each requiring a period of three-quarters of an hour, including the time for necessary practical work:
Lecture 1. General circulation of blood. Causes and kinds of hemorrhage and means for control. Description and practical application of tourniquets.
Lecture 2. Description of first aid package, with practical applications of all its parts, and ordinary bandages; also triangular and roller bandages.
Lecture 3. Methods of transporting wounded men on board ship and on shore. Practical application of emergency splints and dressings, and other first aids to injured arid wounded.
Lecture 4. Rescuing and resuscitation of drowning, and revival of persons unconscious from various causes. Description and use of contents of medical boat boxes.
Lecture 5. General ship and camp hygiene. Bearing of drills and exercises upon health and physical development.
Lecture 6. Effects of alcohol and other narcotics. Personal sanitation and general hygiene of clothing and foods, with special reference to care of men while on liberty.
That benefit would be derived from including such a course in the yearly work cannot be doubted; generally the instruction could be given during bad weather or when other circumstances interfere with routine drills.
MISCELLANEOUS INSTRUCTION.
There is a great mass of general information, which does not belong to any particular branch of training, but on account of its important bearing upon results obtained, should be imparted to all enlisted men during the early part of their career. In this may be included explanation of watch, quarter, and station bills, and the system of alarms and bugle calls; suggestions as to care and cleanliness of clothing and person; instruction in plain sewing; swimming; keeping personal pay accounts to impress value of money and cost of clothing upon recruits; explanation of rank and ratings of all officers and petty officers and insignias of rank, conduct towards officers, and relations existing between officers and men; the traditions and unwritten laws of the navy as well as the Articles for the Government of the Navy that have a particular bearing upon the conduct of the enlisted personnel; the desirable qualities of a good man-of-war's-man; deportment on shore, at home and abroad; conduct in case of brawls; the proper way to get redress for wrongs; information concerning ports to be visited, in this connection charts and maps in glazed bulletin boards for use of crew are much appreciated.
The ten minutes allowed for oral instruction at evening quarters is suggested as the best time for the greater part of such instruction.
In the course of the day's work steps should be taken towards systematic development of mechanical ability, and every man in the deck force should be taught how to handle such tools and mechanical devices in common use about the decks.
SUPERVISION AND INSPECTIONS.
Proper spirit may be infused into the system by careful supervision and thorough inspections of every stage of the training. It should be foremost in thoughts of everyone from the members of the General Board down to the divisional officer. The importance of the work should be emphasized by the personal interest in it shown by commanders of squadrons. The same applies to captains and executive officers whose presence at drills and exercises inspires both officers and men to strive harder to excel. That the training may have the benefit of the general attention of these officers they should be relieved of some of the routine work of lesser importance which requires so much of their attention at present, everything else should be made subordinate to efficient training.
In the larger ships the demands made upon the executive officer at present leaves him little time to devote to the supervision of drills, the most important duty of all. Some of the work required of him should be distributed among his juniors, or following the custom in most foreign services, an additional officer should be assigned to each vessel to relieve him of some of his present duties, so that he may have ample time to keep himself well informed of the state of efficiency of every unit of the fighting force of the ship.
The better development of the petty officer will relieve divisional officers of many minor duties which will make it possible to give the general work of divisions far better supervision.
At all inspections the attention given to various details should be according to their relative importance. The progress in training should be carefully inquired into, and opinions as to the efficiency of the system and the changes in it that are considered desirable should be ascertained. The state of health, contentment of the crew, and privileges granted should be looked into with the same care as the state of cleanliness of the ship. In case of numerous desertions the probable causes should be investigated in order to eliminate them from the entire service.
Inspections of the present training ships, while following the same general lines as those in the regular service, should be so modified as to suit the type of ship and the nature of the work done. They should be of such character as to bring out the proficiency attained in the detailed instruction as well as at general drills. Inspections with the ship underway are undesirable.
The naval training staff should make frequent inspections not only to note and report upon state of efficiency reached, but also to obtain a clear understanding of the practical working of the system, and by keeping in close touch with every branch of the training, learn in what respects the system may be improved, especially as regards assistance given by the department.
Excellence shown by individuals or by ships should be made a matter of record and the results of inspections should be published for the information of the service, especially in all cases of exceptional efficiency. Include in these reports the divisions, gun crews, and boats that excel with the names of the officers and petty officers in charge. By thus indicating the importance of efficient training, self interest and a spirit of rivalry will put the life into the work that is much needed at present.
EXAMINATIONS.
The quarterly examinations, provided for by the Navy Regulations, should be more carefully conducted. While extremely tedious in the case of large divisions these examinations keep divisional officers in touch with their men and give them an insight into their character and intelligence that is not always gained in the daily work. They will also demonstrate the efficiency of petty officers as instructors and show adherence to the system.
These examinations should be of such a character as to bring out the practical usefulness of the men; "show what you can do" rather than "tell what you know." By demonstrating, without fail, any individual improvement, they can be made a powerful stimulus for sell advancement.
RECORDS.
While deprecating the vast amount of clerical work involved in the administration of naval affairs, a correct record of all work done and individual progress made is regarded as essential to systematic training. In this respect give the enlisted personnel the same treatment as material; require a uniformly kept record of every stage of development. The enlistment record in its present form does not fulfill such requirement. It is suggested that a more compact form be used, the entries under professional qualifications showing the exact character of all training received and proficiency attained at each stage. This could be done by following the same method in all branches recently adopted for gunnery; but, in addition to the letter denoting stage passed through, use a mark on a scale of 5 to show merit of work done; thus A 4 under seamanship would indicate "very good" work in the first stage of seamanship instruction. When there has been nothing in the nature of systematic training in a branch during the period for which entry is made in the enlistment record the fact should be indicated by an adopted symbol. Such a record will clearly show a summary of training received and fitness for special branches, also what instruction each man should receive to bring him up to the proper standard for his rating.
The entries on the enlistment record should be made up from a "progress book," kept by the divisional officers who have supervision of the work and are responsible for individual progress made. In this book should be entered the result of examinations in each branch of every enlisted man at the time of assignment to the division; a summary of all training received and progress made in each branch; results of quarterly examinations; scores at all target practice, with such marks as may be useful to indicate exceptional qualities, good or otherwise.
Monthly reports should be required showing the average number of hours systematic training of all the enlisted men in each ship in commission; the division of this time among the various branches; the number of enlisted men excused from such training, and such pertinent remarks as may be of use to those in general charge of the training to improve the system. Prescribed blank forms for these reports should be supplied, also suitably ruled progress books, that the time required for keeping the record of training may be reduced to a minimum; and wherever practicable reports should take the form of memoranda.
A scale of punishments for minor offenses should be adopted that the enlistment record may be a surer indication of general conduct. To this end it would also seem desirable to have the marks in conduct depend partially upon other sources of information than the regular report book.
Self-interest will tend to stimulate men to better work, when a well kept record assures recognition of individual improvement and advancement according to merit, preventing worthy men being overlooked while the undeserving are advanced. Pride in professional qualifications should be awakened by posting marks quarterly and at such other times as they may be of interest to the enlisted men.
QUALIFICATIONS.
Whether a general system of training meets with favor or not, the good of the service demands the immediate adoption of standard qualifications for each rating. The necessity for this step and the benefits to be derived are too evident to require further comment. The qualifications as to citizenship, age, physique and professional ability in each branch should be stated clearly and fully for each rating. The character of the examination given preliminary to advancement in rating should be outlined, and the officers to constitute the board of examiners should be named. The hand-books issued to the men to assist them in self-advancement should give the requirements of each rating in detail. The standards should be maintained as high as practicable; at such times as the available trained force permits, the least desirable should be weeded out, thus raising the standard of the whole. There should be special instruction for the dull and backward, and petty officers who fail to continue efficient should be disrated. To expedite the removal of petty officers lacking the qualifications of their respective ratings, the officers of the examining board for that rating should investigate and submit a report to the senior officer present, whose action in the matter should be final.
The qualifications for admission to the special courses of training should be carefully considered. It would seem that the special advantages gained by taking such course could be made an incentive to good work if properly held out to recruits, and the selection of the men to take these courses be limited to those who had qualified as seamen, shown special fitness for the course, and had been under training for at least two years. Physical qualifications should also be duly considered.
Except in an emergency transfers should not be made from one step in the training to the next higher until men show themselves to be qualified. This is especially the case in the preliminary training where the recruit is so carefully shown the first essential principles of ship life, and failure to learn them then—the proper time—proves a stumbling block during his whole career.
ADVANCEMENT IN RATING.
The selection of the best fitted men for higher training and the employment of petty officers to make best use of their ability are of so great importance that advancement in rating should be strictly according to merit as shown by individual records in sea-going ships. The general service is the practical test of qualifications, both as to character and ability.
With the qualifications for each rating clearly defined, it would seem desirable to give commanding officers more latitude in issuing acting appointments to petty officers. The present system ensures uniformity, but the delay in securing the Department's action in cases of enlisted men tends to have a disorganizing effect.
Strict compliance with the regulations may be ensured by having all advancements reviewed by the Department.
The movement to keep men in one ship as long as possible makes it practicable to fill such vacancies as may occur in the lower ratings by the advancement of men already on board. Placing ships in commission will be so frequent that all continuous service men will be needed for them, and the transfer of such men to ships already in commission will be infrequent. Advancement according to merit ought to be an incentive for good work in every ship.
The regulations provide for advancement in rating of apprentices at the end of specified times. The qualifications required for advancement should correspond to the time limit, and provision should be made for the discharge of those failing to qualify upon second trial. Similar provision should be made for the advancement of landsmen for training, and in other ways equalize the advantages for all recruits.
DISCHARGES AND WEEDING OUT.
The whole enlisted force should be so much in excess of the number required to man ships in commission as to give a good working margin for properly disciplining the unruly and getting rid of the worthless. At shore stations undesirables should be most carefully weeded out, and recruits that show indications of being vicious characters should not be included in drafts for transfer but be held back for further observation. Recognized bad characters should not be tolerated in the service, especially in training ships where their evil influence is far-reaching; their immediate discharge should be made possible by giving the senior officers present authority to order it, especially if it be by sentence of summary court-martial or recommended by a board of officers after investigation. The practice of giving men another chance after flagrant violation of the regulations is of doubtful advantage. Many good men leave the service rather than continue with such undesirable associates.
At such times as the recruiting and early training furnishes all the men required for general service there should be systematic weeding out of the least desirable men, thus raising the general tone of the whole enlisted personnel. The privilege of purchasing discharge might also be restored with advantage; the retention in the service of the discontented is of the nature of compulsory service, which may insure numbers but not necessarily efficiency. A considerable number of these men going out in civil life after a period of training will constitute a valuable reserve that may prove most useful in time of war. In this connection Mahan says: "Is it nothing in an age when authority is weakening and restraints are loosening that the youth of a nation passes through a school in which order, obedience, and reverence are learned; where the body is systematically developed, where ideals of self-surrender, of courage, of manhood, are inculcated, necessarily, because fundamental conditions of military success?"
PAY, INDUCEMENTS AND REWARDS.
As a result of numerous inquiries among men of various ratings it is learned that the present pay is generally regarded as satisfactory. But the recognition which performance of duty receives is a matter of pride, and the money value placed upon the services rendered is taken as an indication of the relative worth of the different ratings in a ship's complement; by such a comparison the chief petty officers of the seaman class do not get what their responsible duties entitle them to, and their pay should be increased accordingly.
Short service is one of the chief obstacles to efficient training. Among other inducements to obtain greater average length of service necessary for the development of efficient men-of-wars-men additional pay in case of re-enlistment should be considerably increased. The value of trained seamen justifies such action, and money spent in retaining men will be saved many times in expense of recruiting and training.
Extra compensation for special acquirements is a great incentive to earnest application, and is justified by the greater general usefulness of the men who qualify in the special branches. Such additional pay should continue as long as quarterly examinations show that the qualifications are maintained or until advancement to a rating which requires such qualifications.
But good pay is not enough. The principal reason given for desertion or failure to re-enlist is the lack of uniformity with regard to comforts, privileges, punishments, and the uncertainties of the enjoyments of the life generally. It is by attention to them rather than to increased pay that long service must be secured. To recruit and retain the desirable class of men, the navy must compete with civil life and offer a respectable and inviting career. It is evident that the rewards now bestowed for long faithful service are not having the desired effect in increasing the number of continuous service men, and other inducements must be offered. Advantage should be taken of the national desire for change of scene, and during cruises men should be given an opportunity to cultivate a desire for sight-seeing and travel that will have some influence in keeping them in the service.
There are many positions of trust and benefit in navy yards, and in the civil departments, especially the Light House Service, for which men-of-wars-men are specially fitted. If in filling such places preference were given to retired seamen with good records, a premium would be placed upon honorable service, the country would continue to gain benefit from men trained at considerable expense, and in event of war these men would be in a position to render valuable assistance to the fleet.
More good men would continue in the service if they felt sure that their best efforts would be duly rewarded. Much harm has been done by offering inducements that could not be fulfilled at all, or only with injury to the service; their enforced discontinuance can only be regarded as a breach of faith, amends for which are made with difficulty. While holding out the possibility of rapid rise to appointment as warrant officer, with the attendant advantages, it should be clearly pointed out that the great majority must be satisfied to remain in the enlisted force, the principal object of the training being to furnish efficient petty officers and men contented to wear a blue shirt.
Self-interest is the determining factor where time and labor are involved, and rewards as well as punishments should be used in maintaining discipline and stimulating ambition to be foremost in all duty. Well-doing has been regarded as the normal state of affairs, and excellence has not received deserved recognition. While trying to avoid inciting envy, there should be a marked difference in the general treatment of men who excel and the ones who are indifferent. Not only for gunnery but in every branch of the training there should be prizes for those who rank first according to a carefully kept record. More rewards are needed similar to the Bailey medal given annually to the most proficient apprentice. In addition to pecuniary rewards, special privileges might be accorded to encourage individual efforts. It has been suggested that proper recognition of general excellence in gunnery would be shown by giving the crew of the ship the right of the line at brigade reviews and formations, and giving the best division of each vessel a similar position in the ship's battalion.
DISCIPLINE.
A military writer has defined discipline as that quality which makes obedience second nature, and causes man to accept without question the powers and limitations of his rank. The usual evidences of discipline are military etiquette and ceremonious marks of deference to military superiors; the best evidences being endurance of necessary hardships without grumbling, and willing, energetic, and intelligent performance of duty.
Americans are not naturally susceptible to a high state of discipline, but when it came to active service during the Spanish War the "best evidences" were apparent everywhere, and the general state of discipline was most excellent. There is unbounded faith in the men responding quickly in an emergency, but there can be but little pride in the outward evidences of the state of discipline, by which civilians and foreign naval officers gauge the efficiency of the navy almost entirely. The lack of deference shown officers by enlisted men is the natural outcome of existing conditions; it is due to their close touch day after day, frequently under circumstances where the required dignity and reserve are out of place. At present officers are forced to give too much of their time to trifling matters, doing too much petty officer's duty, sometimes badly, to retain that high regard of the men essential to a fine state of discipline. While deploring this lack of deference to rank, there is a tendency to shirk personal responsibility for its improvement. The task demands united action, and individually "we ought not to begrudge those daily sacrifices and minor offices, which, distasteful as they may be, are the sina qua non of true discipline and efficient organization."
In considering the improvement of the state of discipline there should be a frank recognition of the faults and weaknesses of the men as well as their possibilities. One of the chief causes of discontent is the lack of uniformity in enforcing discipline; certain kinds of misconduct being tolerated in some ships while severely punished in others. Uniform and explicit regulations should be laid down to govern the internal discipline of ships. These should be presented in such form as to prevent any chance of misunderstanding, as many infractions are due to inexplicit orders.
With the constantly increasing enlisted force and changing conditions, the present means for enforcing discipline are not effective. A general revision of the laws relating to the administration of justice in the navy has been urged repeatedly. It has been proposed that a new code of laws be prepared for submission to Congress, with a view to the simplification and proper classification of offenses, providing unvarying punishments for each infraction of the regulations and additional penalties for repetition of an offense. In making such a revision, summary punishment for the more serious offenses should be insured by less cumbersome rules for summary courts-martial, or by extending the authority of commanding officers. The latter would be the most expedient as the reduced number of officers in the smaller vessels makes trial by courts-martial difficult. Divisional officers, too, should be given the same authority to enforce discipline in their own divisions as obtains for officers commanding companies in the Army and Marine Corps.
The ineffectiveness of some of the present forms of punishments leads to consideration of changes that will prevent frequent repetitions of the same offense. Withholding pay being generally non-effective as a punishment on account of the facilities for leaving allotments, and the deprivation of liberty on shore being a doubtful expedient, it is suggested that there be but two conduct classes—one deserving every consideration in the way of privileges, and the other being accorded none; but every restriction should be removed when a second-class man is restored again to the first class. The substitution of fines for the more common forms of punishment on board ship is said to have given good results in the British navy. Brief terms of confinement are not generally regarded by men as much of a hardship, and except for offenses of a vicious character the disadvantage of losing the services of men during long terms is so great that an effective substitute is desirable. But when it is resorted to, loss of pay for the term of confinement should follow to make the punishment more keenly felt.
While it is not policy to notice every little infraction of regulations, serious offenses should be severely punished, and in the case of deserters every means should be used to detect and bring them to trial. Such measures will insure proper respect for discipline and authority.
CONTENTMENT.
Contentment depends on the physical comforts—messing arrangements, privileges, and punishments—more than on the amount of work and pay. In this connection it is interesting to read from the memoirs of the great naval commander who contributed so much to Nelson's victory at Trafalgar. "Lord Collingwood carried his system of arrangement and care to such a degree of perfection, that perhaps no society in the world, of equal extent, was so healthy as the crew of his flagship. She had usually eight hundred men; was, on one occasion, more than a year and a half without going into port, and during the whole of that time never had more than six, and generally only four on her sick list. This result was occasioned by his attention to dryness (for he rarely permitted washing between decks), to the frequent ventilation of the hammocks and clothes, to the creating of as much circulation of air below as possible, to the diet and amusement of the men, but above all, by the contented spirits of the sailors who loved their commander as their protector and friend, well assured that at his hands they would ever receive justice and kindness, and that of their own comforts he was more jealous than of his own."
Life in the navy must be made as comfortable and respectable as possible. There must be material attractions, manifest from the outset, during the early training as well as in the fighting ship. The causes for the general contentment in the so-called happy ships should be investigated with a view of bringing about a similar state throughout the service. To prevent frequent misinterpretations of orders and wishes implied, detailed instructions should be issued clearly setting forth the policy of the Department with regard to comforts and privileges.
The physical comforts of the crew should not be sacrificed needlessly as an economical or disciplinary measure; they should be duly considered in designing ships, the general surroundings of which should be conducive to contentment. On the upper decks and between decks there should be sufficient light at all times for the crew to carry on work or amusements without difficulty; this is also in the interest of cleanliness and discipline. The facilities for bathing, and scrubbing and drying clothes should be improved still further. Give each man on board ship a bucket for his personal use and a regular place to stow it; these could be made out of galvanized iron, fitted to stow inside one another and take up less room and be cleaner than wooden buckets in present use. A small electric centrifugal dryer and a drying room seem a much needed addition to all ships and stations. The distilling apparatus on board ship should be sufficiently large to supply without difficulty the required amount of fresh water for ship's use; one of the chief sources of discontent among enlisted men is the cutting off the usual allowance of wash water, and also having to drink warm water, as is now frequently necessary.
Sufficient space should be regularly allotted to every man for the proper stowage of such parts of the outfit that he is required to have which cannot be kept in his bag or ditty box. It is in the interest of the health, comfort, and discipline of the crew that rain clothes and rubber boots should be kept ready for use; separate compartments in specially constructed lockers on deck should be assigned each man for this purpose. The way in which these articles are generally stowed at present results in delay in breaking them out, and frequently in their loss. In training ships such rain clothes lockers are an absolute necessity. The messing arrangements have been a source of much discontent and the general mess has been most unpopular with the men, who regarded the management of their own messes as a vested right. But the gratifying results of the recently adopted commissary system in some ships show that where it has not proved satisfactory the fault is not in the system but in the inefficient manner in which it is operated.
It is not enough that seamen should be well paid and well fed; they must be given opportunities to enjoy their earnings. Shore leave should be granted under favorable conditions; in case the duty of ships is such as to necessarily restrict the usual privileges and comforts of the enlisted men, when practicable, they should be ordered to some port offering proper facilities for giving liberty. This, as well as deserving leave for deserving men during the holidays at the end of a cruise, or while a ship is undergoing repairs that interferes with routine work will be duly appreciated, and the results of training will be better on account of the general contentment that follows. Some years ago during the winter evolutions on the Southern drill ground, the North Atlantic squadron made several trips to New York for the special purpose of giving liberty; and at the close of the manceuvres last summer, the torpedo flotilla, on its way from the New England coast to Norfolk, stopped at New York for the same purpose. The increased pride which the men felt in receiving such consideration counted far more than any increase of pay.
A majority of recruits enter the service from a desire to see something of the world; in fact, it is one of the chief inducements offered. Sight-seeing should be regarded as an essential part of the training, and during foreign cruises such privileges should be accorded men as not to dispel entirely their romantic visions of navy life. When opportunities in the way of visiting places of interest make it desirable, day liberty should be granted, giving it for longer periods and less frequently. During the absence of a part of the crew the work and training of the remainder should continue without interruption; there seems no real reason for the disorganizing effects that frequently result from giving liberty. Men should be encouraged to sleep on board, and to facilitate their return to the ship night boats should be run as late as practicable.
Every indulgence consistent with efficient training should be granted to deserving men, there being a wide mark of distinction in the treatment of such men and the troublesome members of the crew. With a view to alleviating hardships the men should be studied individually and collectively, as different types of men require different treatment. The enlisted men should have impressed upon them their own responsibility and the effect of their conduct on general contentment.
RECREATION AND AMUSEMENTS.
Discipline and contentment are not inconsistent. The training should be strict but means of enjoyment provided. Every practicable sort of amusement should be introduced in the service to make men contented and fond of their ships. Not only the scope and character of the drills should be outlined but also the hours for recreation and the times for giving liberty, that there may be general uniformity in this respect, too. The music furnished by bands allowed flagships and the larger training ships do much good. The formation of volunteer bands and orchestras in the others should be aided; and boxing, wrestling, minstrel shows, and other entertainments for the crew should be systematically encouraged.
Attempt should be made to direct the general trend of the thoughts of the men during leisure hours. The way the mind is occupied during this considerable part of each day will have a marked effect upon general efficiency; and healthful sports, amusements, and reading matter should be provided to insure that buoyancy and cheerfulness so essential to contentment. The excellent library now furnished ships for use of crew should be enlarged so as to include such elementary school books, professional books, and drill manuals as may be of use to petty officers and drill masters, and to ambitious men working for self-advancement. Popular naval histories and works of fiction similar in character to "A Man Without a Country" should be added. Subscriptions to a number of the leading newspapers and magazines for the use of the crew will afford benefits that will justify the time and attention that such arrangements will necessitate. The care of both library and newspapers should be placed in charge of the chaplain or a responsible petty officer, and the rules governing the issue of books should be such as to make them available daily; suggestions to promote circulation of books and increase the general use of the library should be encouraged.
The educational value of play should be made use of in the general development. The ceaseless activity of the younger recruits should be directed and utilized in sports that will not only tend to build up the body physically but give that mental stimulus that develops quick perception, rapid judgment, and prompt decision. Mere physical exercises afford little enjoyment; there must be some cause for enthusiasm that will bring out vitality, spontaneity, and zest; develop will power and an instinctive condemnation of what is unfair. When the Duke of Wellington, late in life, sat watching a game of football among the students of Eton College, he said, "There's where the battle of Waterloo was won."
While such attention to details may have the appearance of coddling, with the proper spirit infused into daily drills and exercises, granting such indulgences ought not to make the men less ready to endure hardship or face danger when necessary, and the contented letter to people at home will be a most effective means of acquiring recruits.
SYSTEMATIC TRAINING OF MEN NOT IN SEAMAN CLASS.
The difficulty experienced in recruiting a sufficient number of well qualified artificers, mechanics, yeomen, and cooks shows that provision must be made for giving all enlisted men a course of systematic training in their respective branches of the same general character as that which has been outlined with special reference to the seamen class. At receiving stations there should be preliminary courses of training that will prepare recruits to go aboard ship and undertake their duties at once.
The hospital corps is in a most satisfactory condition as a result of progressive training since its organization a few years ago. The schools recently established for yeomen, electricians, and cooks are also doing good work, though badly handicapped by lack of officers to give them proper attention. The training of coal passers in torpedo boats in reserve has met With success. But all of this training should be put on a firmer basis, with a well defined policy, and under the general direction of the office for naval training to insure proper co-operation and co-ordination of all branches of the work. The facilities at navy yards should be used to assist in developing proper engine-room and fire-room forces, and apprentice ships established to provide skilled artificers and mechanics for fighting Ships. Transfers from the seaman class to the fire-room or messmen class after a considerable period of training are made at a distinct loss in time and expense. It is suggested that in receiving ships and barracks a sufficient number of ship's cooks fourth class be kept under instruction to supply the general service. This measure will have the double advantage of recruits getting valuable practice under experienced cooks, and Performing work that must otherwise be done by men in seaman class at a loss of time for their special training. At present messmen reduce considerably the average fighting efficiency of the enlisted force on board ship, and a supply of good mess attendants is becoming a matter of importance. There ought not to be a large foreign element on our ships for any purpose, and means of getting a desirable class of Americans for this duty should be considered.
The proper sphere of work of the naval militia should also be decided upon, and the necessary course of training laid out.
SUMMARY.
The following are the leading measures advocated in the preceding discussion:
1. Adoption of a general system of naval training.
2. A staff for the general direction and supervision of the training of the enlisted force.
3. A progressive course of training from landsman to chief Petty officer.
4. One year's preliminary training for recruits of seaman class.
5. Sailing brigs and gunnery vessels attached to shore stations.
6. Transfer from training stations direct to general service.
7. All advanced training, except for seaman gunners, to be in regular service.
8. Standard qualifications for each rating.
9. Well kept records of training, and advancement according to merit.
10. Closer supervision and more thorough inspections.
11. Thorough weeding out of undesirable characters.
12. Readjustment of pay for certain ratings.
13. Offering additional inducements and rewards for long service.
14. More attention to physical comforts and general contentment.
15. Better development of petty officers.
16. New code of laws for administering justice in the navy.
17. Systematic training in their respective branches for all enlisted men.
18. Uniformity in all matters of organization, internal regulations, general alarms, privileges and punishments.
ADVANTAGES.
By adopting such measures, expediency gives way to a well planned system of progressive training; with thoroughness insured by proper supervision; the scope increased by better distribution; co-operation in all its branches carried on at no greater expense; requiring much smaller force for training; warrant officers and chief petty officers relieving divisional officers of many of the details; a guide for varying conditions, and of great assistance in laying out the day's work. Standard routines, courses of instruction, scales of punishments and internal regulations will deprive ships of much of their distinctive character, and it may detract from the efficiency of some, but in a greater number of cases it will root out an individuality that is injurious, and make it practicable for officers and petty officers to take up the work at any stage with facility. In case the length of time of preliminary training be considerably reduced, such a system will be needed all the more to insure uniformity of the early training in a large number of ships in the regular service.
It will take some years to thoroughly develop such a system, but its advantages will become evident as soon as petty officers begin to take their proper positions in a ship's company.
DEFECTS OF THE SYSTEM.
Some of the defects that will be ascribed to such a system are that it is not practical, is too elaborate, destroys individuality, and introduces additional clerical work. But the constantly growing service demands some well defined policy in training and a poor system is better than none at all. If the one adopted does not always prove practical then regard it as the ideal. Attention to details is necessary to obtain uniformity. No better example of the advantage of such attention can be desired than the target firing of Lieutenant Foyer's turret in the Kearsarge. A broad and comprehensive system is required to develop the resourceful seaman and provide material for warrant officers. With a progressive instruction, well distributed, men should not grow stale from over-training, or become mere machines. A rigid system tends to destroy individuality in Ships. But, Mahan says that the "whole of military action is contained in the word unity," and to secure the implied unity of action in battle there must be uniformity in previous training.
There are some that will condemn any system that involves additional clerical work. But consider the time spent on indicator cards. Are not the personal elements in ships of equal importance to the cylinders; and should their work be less carefully watched and studied with a view of making such adjustments (in the system) as to secure the greatest efficiency? There is no desire to devote less attention to material, but to give the same amount to personnel.
This question of training has too far-reaching effects to be 'viewed narrowly—limited to one's own personal experience—the opinions of others should be carefully considered. The system should be prepared under the direction of the General Board, or submitted for approval, and the measures adopted should be ones insuring the highest state of fighting efficiency of the whole naval force. Any plan that receives such approval should be given that hearty co-operation and assistance so essential to its successful operation. Personal prejudice to existing measures has sometimes permitted obstructions to be placed in the way of the work of training, trusting that failure would lead to a change of policy. Individual wishes should take the form of suggestions for official action, and the pointing out of defects should be encouraged. Proper co-operation will insure the elimination of evident faults wherever they exist.
CONCLUSION.
The writer is aware of the incompleteness and possible inconsistencies of the arguments advanced and that the measures advocated will be regarded as a training ship solution of the problem. But it is hoped that the suggestions in this essay may lead to the immediate adoption of a general system of naval training which will improve the present unsatisfactory condition of the enlisted personnel, and will ensure that preparedness of the navy which is the safest means of maintaining peace with honor.