The story of the first permanent English settlement in the New World is a maritime tale. It is born out of the Protestant Tudor navy’s success against Catholic Spain, the desire of the first Stuart king for peace with King Philip III of Spain, the failures or inability of Spain to react, the development of private trading companies to carry out national goals—and pure luck. While King James I will forever be linked to the colony that bears his name, the Tudors laid the foundation for the first successful English colony. Exploration, a desire for expansion, and new opportunities that followed the defeat of the Spanish Armada were the work of Queen Elizabeth I and her predecessors.
The English were interested in colonization long before James I became king. Henry VII granted the first letters of patent to John Cabot, on whose voyages England’s and the Virginia Company’s claims in North America rested. Richard Hore and Sir Humphrey Gilbert wanted to plant colonies in Newfoundland. Though the attempts failed, authors such as Richard Hakluyt, whose volume Divers Voyages Touching the Discovery of America was published in 1582, kept alive the notion of the New World.
Sir Walter Raleigh continued Hakluyt’s work by obtaining a patent to establish a colony at Roanoke in present-day North Carolina for use as a base to attack Spanish shipping. The first group of settlers arrived in 1585 but, facing significant challenges from a lack of supplies, were removed by Sir Francis Drake, who stopped at the colony on his way home in June 1586 from the successful sacking of St. Augustine. The combination of private enterprise and covert or open support by the throne was a hallmark of early English attempts at colonization. Raleigh financed a second effort to establish a colony in the same area in April 1587. The relief expedition that was to depart England in March 1588 was grounded by the Privy Council, as all ships were needed to defend against the Spanish Armada. By the time an expedition reached Roanoke in August 1590, the settlers had disappeared. Raleigh financed several efforts to find the “Lost Colony,” and as late as 1602 he sent Samuel Mace searching for survivors. The Jamestown settlers continued the search but, like Mace, did not find the answers.
By the mid-1500s Europeans had turned the Atlantic Ocean into a vast highway for the movement of raw materials, manufactured goods, and people between continents. All four continents that bordered the Atlantic—Africa, Europe, North America, and South America—were drawn into a complicated pattern of economic interdependence called the Atlantic Economy. At first interested in the Americas and Africa for natural resources such as gold, Europeans soon realized these lands could produce other forms of wealth as well. European nations grew rich from the commodities and resources they extracted from Africa and the Americas.
This was a period of change in England. Between 1520 and 1630, the country’s population increased dramatically. Early industrialization and expanding trade spurred development of great and profitable trading companies, such as the Muscovy Company formed in 1555 and the East India Company formed in 1600. Even though they were private concerns, they in many ways carried out a national aim to make England more of a player on the international scene. While half the population in cities might have lived in deplorable conditions, unable to find work, wealth realized by these companies fueled dreams. During much of her reign, Queen Elizabeth I quietly supported a policy of raiding Spanish ships and possessions. Capture of these treasure ships, and the rumors such actions spawned, also reinforced on the English psyche the idea that wealth could be found in the New World. The capture of the 1,500-ton great treasure ship San Felipe by Drake in 1587 provided hope for the poor and an example for those with means. The San Felipe's cargo was valued at £114,000 sterling. Wealth that Spain had found in the New World stimulated English interest there.
Opportunities for colonization were opened when James I, on becoming king in 1603, began to pursue peace with Spain. Because of the challenges Spain faced, it needed peace more than England did. As a result, the treaty of 1604 did not support previous claims for Spanish control of the New World. While James I had neither the resources nor the inclination to take advantage of the new peace and establish colonies, he was willing to support the efforts of others.
The cost of establishing a colony was too great to be born by any individual. For example, some estimate that Roanoke cost Raleigh more than £40,000 sterling. If government and individuals were not the answer, private companies were. Through a royal charter, James 1 established the Virginia Company of London on 10 April 1606. Following the precedent set by other enterprises such as the Moscovy Company and East India Company, the Virginia Company was a joint-stock business, which sold shares. All who purchased shares had a stake in the success or failure of the venture. The Virginia Company was formed both to bring profit to its shareholders and to establish an English colony in the New World. With the dream of riches and the support of the upper class, the church, and a growing middle class, the Virginia Company became the largest joint-stock company in England and wished to win favor by proving its loyalty to the crown. The company was instructed to colonize land between the 34th and 41st northern parallels.
Many English leaders supported the company because of perceived threats. France was active in Canada, and Spain, if not challenged, would probably sooner rather than later expand to Virginia. This analysis and a covert desire for bases from which to raid Spanish shipping were reasons many supported the company. Publicly, the founders discussed the riches of the New World that were there to exploit. They saw the need to provide an outlet for the displaced population and the soldiers and sailors recently unemployed because of economic change and peace with Spain. And they wanted to find the northwest passage to the East Indies and the chance to convert natives to Christianity.
The establishment of colonies, however, depended on developments in ship design and construction, cartography, and navigation. The ability to plot an accurate course was a crucial element in expanding trade and establishing colonies. Longer vessels with rounded holds, multiple decks that provided more storage space and placement for guns, a mixed sail plan of square and lateen rigs, and improved speed, turning, and handling were developed over time. The steering oar was replaced by the whipstaff, a long-handled pole attached to the tiller that in turn moved the rudder.
Changes in ship construction also created problems for mariners. The high-sided hulls and oversized masts and spars made these “new” ships dangerous and difficult to handle in open seas. Additional weight created by adding planking to counter worm damage and bottoms covered with weeds and barnacles slowed the ships and made them less maneuverable. In stormy weather, the square sail plan forced many ships to sail downwind, often driving them into shallow waters or onto rocky shores.
During the medieval period, small books known as rutters provided sailors with information about winds, tides, currents, and depth. Cartographers combined the information from sailing charts and rutters to create useful maps. English mapmakers depended on information obtained by the Spanish, who were the first to explore the New World. By 1570, Spaniards had located the Chesapeake Bay and attempted to found a Jesuit mission. Raleigh’s various expeditions as well as others also helped the English compile information.
Celestial navigation was based on calculating position by measuring the angle between the horizon and sun at its highest point, or the North Star at night. While they were difficult to handle from the deck of rolling ships, navigators used instruments such as the astrolabe, quadrant, cross-staff, or backstaff to determine latitude.
The London Company purchased one ship, the Discovery, a small vessel of 20- tons, and chartered the Susan Constant, 120-tons burden, and the Godspeed, 40- tons burden. These were the ships that carried 104 passengers to Virginia to establish a colony. Each was armed with the weapons of the day. The Susan Constant probably carried four guns. The Godspeed and Discovery carried rail guns known as “murderers,” designed to “welcome” potential boarding parties and to sweep the enemies’ decks. Company plans called for the Discovery, along with a shallop that was knocked down for the voyage and was to be put together in Virginia, to remain in the colony and to assist with exploration and the possibility of finding a new route to the East Indies.
Loaded with supplies for the colonists, the small fleet left London in December 1606. The weather proved cold and contrary as the fleet was hit by winds and storms at the mouth of the Thames. Perhaps the best compliment that could be given a captain under these conditions was by George Percy, who noted, “The fifth of January we anchored in the Downs, but the winds continued contrary so long, that we were forced to stay there some time, where we suffered great storms, but by the skillfulness of the Captain we suffered no great loss or danger.” The fleet remained in sight of England for six weeks before fair winds allowed it to head south for the Canary Islands. The sailing directions of the period indicated a ship should sail south “until the butter melted,” then turn west across the Atlantic.
Conditions on board the ships were difficult. The Susan Constant carried 71 men, the Godspeed 52, and the Discovery 21. The ships were cargo vessels, not transports, and creature comforts were scant. People lived and slept among supplies and weapons. Sailors, fearing passengers would interfere with their work, tried to prevent those traveling in the cargo hold from spending time on deck. The passengers lived in conditions best described as cramped, cold, and dark.
After crossing the Atlantic, the company first landed on Martinique in the West Indies, which must have been cause for celebration. The tiny fleet island-hopped its way across the Caribbean, stopping, among other places, at Dominica, Guadeloupe, St. Eustatius, Nevis, and Mona, where they found food, water, baths, and natives. On Mona, the company suffered its only fatality of the voyage. Edward Brookes was with a group searching for provisions. During a difficult march, “the fat melted within him by the great heat and drought of the country.”
After heading north to Virginia, land was sighted on the “six and twentieth day of April,” and the flotilla entered Chesapeake Bay. The first engagement with the natives came when part of the company was “going aboard” and was charged “very desperately.” The landing party drove off the attackers but suffered two casualties.
On 13 May 1607, in what would become known as the James River, the colonists found a small island where “our ships do lie so near the shore that they are moored to trees in six fathom water.” The next day, the men were landed to begin work on fortifications. The Jamestown colony would face significant challenges but would survive. In 1624 James I revoked the Virginia Company’s charter, and Virginia became a royal colony.
The democratic, capitalistic Christian society that became firmly rooted at Jamestown relied on maritime trade and naval protection. Ships during the earliest days brought supplies and weapons the English would use to dominate others. Ships brought the first Africans in 1619, the same year the first legislature met. The wealth based on servitude and tobacco purchased luxury goods brought by ship. Jamestown is where the American tradition of maritime trade began. It was also the place where the clash and mixing of American Indians, Europeans, and Africans created a legacy of cultural interaction. Jamestown’s greatest achievement may be that it began the evolution of modern America. The constant reinvention of the themes of equality and democracy, among the most basic tenets of our history, first began at Jamestown. Thus, the small band of English who arrived in Virginia in 1607 set in motion a chain of events that has helped shape the world.
Jamestown Quadricentennial
From 11 through 13 May, billed as “America’s Anniversary Weekend,” Jamestown is hosting national and international dignitaries and ordinary citizens to commemorate its 400th anniversary. The signature event of a year-long string of celebrations—including a reenactment of Captain John Smith's rowing voyage up the Chesapeake Bay (see www.johnsmith400.org for details)—the weekend promises to be a memorable combination of sights and sounds. Entertainment over the three days will fill five performance stages set up at Historic Jamestowne, Jamestowne Settlement, and the specially constructed Anniversary Park. The festivities reach their crescendo on Sunday, with performances by a 1,607-voice chorale accompanied by a 400-piece orchestra, composed of musicians and singers from across the United States. Date-specific tickets, which include admission to several attractions, are $30 for adults and $15 for children age 6 to 12. Full weekend tickets are available through Colonial Williamsburg. For further details on the anniversary weekend and a calendar of area events throughout 2007, visit www.jamestown2007.org.
One Century Ago . . .
Virginians have celebrated the founding of Jamestown every 50 years since 1807, with one of the largest and most popular commemorations occurring in 1907. The Jamestown Ter-Centennial Exposition, from 26 April to 30 November, was much like a world’s fair and took place on the site of today’s Norfolk Naval Base. The U.S. government, 21 states, foreign nations, private companies, and organizations sponsored exhibits touting their history and accomplishments. President Theodore Roosevelt, humorist Mark Twain, pioneer educator Booker T. Washington, and other luminaries of the day took part in events.
Perhaps the exposition’s most impressive display was on water rather than land. Ships of two squadrons commanded by Rear Admiral Robley D. Evans were a constant presence off Sewell’s Point. The fleet included 16 battleships, 5 cruisers, and 6 destroyers. They were joined by 50 ships from eight major powers, which accepted President Roosevelt’s invitation to participate in a world naval review. The warships normally anchored in line from Old Point Comfort to Newport News, but on special days they sailed on parade past the exposition grounds.
When the exposition closed at the end of November, it proved to be a financial failure, losing several million dollars. While attendance had been 3 million—a large number of people, especially for a town not on the Northeast corridor’s mainline—it was only a fraction of what promoters had promised. By all accounts, however, the exposition’s most successful concession was the “Battle of the Merrimac and Monitor.” The cyclorama of the battle was housed in a large, almost four-story tall building. On several days the box office receipts at this amusement exceeded those of the exposition gate.
Today, 16 of 21 state buildings constructed for the exposition still stand at Naval Station Norfolk. Outstanding examples of Colonial Revival architecture, these represent the largest surviving collection of exposition buildings constructed before World War I. Most of them line Dillingham Boulevard, unofficially known as Admiral's Row because many of the buildings now serve as flag officer housing. The Naval Station Norfolk bus tour includes the boulevard on its route, and tour information is available at www.gohrt.com. Additional information on the U.S. Navy's architectural heritage in Hampton Roads and the 1907 Jamestown Exposition Historic District is available on the Hampton Roads Naval Museum's Web site at www.hrnm.navy.mil/ architectural.html
Barely more than two weeks after the exposition closed, on 16 December progeny of the Civil War ironclads set off on a journey that would circumnavigate the globe. Fittingly, the so-called “Great White Fleet” under Admiral Evans embarked from Hampton Roads.
—J. M. Caiella