In 1803, New Orleans was a great trading city—a thriving port through which the bounty of the lands along the Ohio, Tennessee, Cumberland, Missouri, and Mississippi rivers passed en route to every major European, Caribbean, and Central American port. Foodstuffs, linen goods, naval stores, and tobacco went to Mexico, the Caribbean, and Spanish Florida. Cotton was not yet king, but already it was a major money crop. As the Napoleonic wars continued in Europe, thousands of barrels of flour were loaded at New Orleans destined for the ports of Cadiz, Lisbon, Corunna, and Gibraltar.
But as New Orleans gave to both the Old and New World, so, too, it received. Local merchants proudly advertised such crafted goods as claret, brandy, anchovies, and ladies’ shoes from Marseilles. From Liverpool came quilts, shawls, lace, printed cloth, blankets, tablecloths, corduroy, and cotton stockings as well as scissors and needles. Some cloth and linen were brought from Hamburg, along with glassware, tiles, and gin. From the northeast United States, ships brought tin wares, wheelbarrows, chairs, furniture, and U.S.-made gin and porter; from the Caribbean came cigars, rum, coffee, and carriages.
Perhaps the most important product brought to New Orleans was specie from Mexico, Cuba, and Central America. Schooners that carried food and manufactured items to Campeche, Mexico, brought back thousands of gold and silver Spanish coins. The quantity of Spanish coins brought to New Orleans probably exceeded that of U.S.-minted coins in the city. Many frontiersmen from Tennessee, Kentucky, and beyond returned home from trips to New Orleans with Spanish coins in their pockets. Without these coins, trade in New Orleans would have been hampered greatly.
New Orleans was the only major non-English-speaking city in the young United States. The majority of the residents were Spanish or French, many of whom were descendants of the original settlers. The inhabitants embraced the freedom that the new U.S. government brought but clung resolutely to their European traditions, institutions, and language. The laws that governed business had their origins in the Spanish Siete Partide and the French Code Napoleon. Another holdover from the old regimes was a far more lax attitude toward the enforcement of revenue laws, an attitude that often frustrated U.S. officials sent to govern the new territory.
Hore Browse Trist became collector of customs for the Port of New Orleans on 20 December 1803, when the United States took physical possession of the territory. Unfortunately, this respected man fell victim to yellow fever during his first summer in the city and died in August 1804. He was replaced by William Brown.
No matter whence they came, all large vessels destined for New Orleans entered the Mississippi River at Balize or Pilot Town. A short distance from Balize were several large, sandy, and uninhabited offshore islands. The larger of these were Grand Isle and Cat Island on the western side of Balize and Breton Island on the east. These islands often served as the rendezvous site for smugglers and were used by privateers and pirates from throughout the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico to set upon ships entering or leaving the Mississippi.
The Cutter Louisiana
To protect merchantmen and to ensure the collection of customs duties, it was obvious almost immediately to the U.S. government that some type of armed vessel was needed. In 1804, Albert Gallatin, Secretary of the Treasury, contracted with William Parsons of Baltimore to build a revenue cutter for service in New Orleans. Secretary Gallatin ordered that the cutter be built of the best wood and other materials available; it also was to be cooper- fastened and copper-bottomed. Work progressed quickly and by late 1804, the new cutter—the Louisiana—was ready. She was schooner-rigged and measured 70 feet, 6 inches in length; 22 feet, 4 inches in width; and had a 5-foot, 7-inch draft. She had one deck, two masts, and a square stern, and displaced nearly 75 tons. She had a crew of 30—including three officers—one of whom was her captain, Joseph Newcomb. As soon as the ship was fitted out, she sailed for New Orleans. Baltimore-built ships were renowned for their speed, and the Louisiana was no exception; she arrived at Balize after a voyage of only 20 days and landed at New Orleans by Christmas Eve.
Upon his arrival, Captain Newcomb came under the authority of the collector of revenue in New Orleans. He was required to provide the collector the same kind of information that any merchant captain would give his ship’s owner. The collector, however, also had to answer to Secretary Gallatin, who made it clear that he expected to get the Treasury’s money’s worth from the Louisiana:
“[T]he cutter Louisiana has been built and fitted out at a considerable expense and will from the number of hands employed on board, constitute a very heavy annual charge on the Revenue . . . ; I have therefore to request that you will never permit the cutter to remain in port longer than is absolutely necessary. . . .”
The Louisiana’s original armament was six four-pounder guns, but when she arrived at New Orleans, the collector of revenue decided to add four more guns. He justified this action by pointing out:
“[A]s smuggling had heretofore been systematically carried on here and as the western coast of the Gulf was sometimes visited by privateers and illicit traders generally with 8 to 10 guns and from 50 to 80 men, ... I conceived that 27 men and 10 guns with prudent officers would protect the revenue and I equipped her accordingly.”
Although under the collector’s orders, Captain Newcomb immediately established a reputation as a brash, often contentious man. On her first cruise, the cutter was ordered to the west of Balize. Captain Newcomb ignored these orders and instead took her northeast and landed at Pascagoula, then disputed territory occupied by the Spanish. There, he confiscated a large quantity of coffee and brought it to New Orleans. To avoid an international incident, Newcomb quickly was ordered to return the coffee, which he did. The incident did nothing to curb Captain Newcomb. Shortly after he returned to New Orleans, he and an Army lieutenant had a serious dispute. In the manner of the era, they settled their differences with pistols. Captain Newcomb prevailed, the lieutenant suffering a wound in the arm. Soon enough, Captain Newcomb would have a legitimate outlet for his high spirits.
By 1805, British warships and privateers began to cruise off the entrance to the Mississippi River. Ostensibly, they were there to intercept Spanish ships—lawful prizes for British ships. However, the British often boarded ships flying other than Spanish colors and did so within the territorial waters of the United States—the latter a clear violation of U.S. sovereignty. Matters came to a head on 16 April 1805. The U.S. schooner Felicity, carrying passengers and $25,000 in specie, was stopped by two British privateers, just two miles from the entrance to the Mississippi River. The British ships were under the command of a Captain Johnson, who was in the privateer May Flower.
The Felicity was forced to drop anchor, and one of the privateers quickly was lashed to her side. The British boarded and searched her and discovered part of her precious cargo. The captain of the Felicity was required to produce her registration documents and cargo manifests. If the schooner or her cargo proved to be Spanish-owned, he was told, she would be taken to New Providence.
The Louisiana to the Rescue
As luck would have it, the Louisiana was at anchor not too far away and, once inside the river, the pilots made straight for the cutter. The pilots reported to Captain Newcomb that two British privateers were “boarding and plundering every vessel that went out or came into the river.” Not surprisingly, Captain Newcomb was determined to save the Felicity; he was severely shorthanded, however, with only 18 men in his crew. Therefore, at 1400, Captain Newcomb went ashore and began to drum up volunteers from the seamen at Balize. Whatever appeal he used, it worked. By 1430, he had enlisted 11 men, returned with them to the Louisiana, and was under way. As the cutter sailed out of the river, Newcomb ordered the ship prepared for action. When she entered the open Gulf, the guns were manned, every man was at his station, and the decks were cleared for action. As soon as Newcomb saw the Felicity—which remained at anchor and tied to the privateer— he made right for her. As she approached, the Louisiana unfurled her colors and fired a warning shot. But the British privateers showed no intention of leaving their prize. Newcomb ordered two more guns fired. Again, nothing happened. The Louisiana continued for the Felicity and came up along her side. Defiantly, the privateer continued to hold the schooner. Newcomb then rounded past the Felicity, came closely alongside the privateer, and fired a broadside. The privateer immediately returned fire, and the second privateer closed in and joined the fight.
Details of the action are sketchy, but it is known that the action continued hot and heavy for about an hour, the air thick with powder smoke and resounding with the boom of the privateers’ 12-pounder guns and the sharp crack of the Louisiana’s four-pounders. The privateer lashed to the Felicity was hit and damaged and finally sheered off. Both privateers then disengaged and took to their heels. The undamaged Louisiana—she was not hit by a single ball— escorted the schooner into Balize. After anchoring, the crew went aboard the schooner and moved $12,000 worth of specie to the cutter, leaving $13,000 on board the Felicity. The two then proceeded to New Orleans.
Although the Felicity had been rescued by the Louisiana, Balize remained a cruising ground for British warships. On 19 June, the Royal Navy frigate HMS Diana arrived off Balize. She anchored on 21 June, and the next morning, her barge was lowered and armed. The timing was good, for a schooner appeared soon after, and the barge gave chase. At 1200, the schooner hove to and was boarded. It was the U.S.-flagged Flying Fish, returning from Campeche with a cargo of logwood—and $10,000 in specie. Several men with provisions were put on board, and the schooner was sent to Nassau and Admiralty Court. Four days—and no captures—later, the Diana left in search of more prizes.
As for the May Flower, she continued what turned out to be a frustrating cruise. Captain Johnson’s command seized another U.S. ship—the sloop Breareton and Mary Kenner— off the coast of Cuba. Bound from Baltimore for New Orleans, she was carrying a cargo of pitch and tar. Skeptical of her ultimate destination, Captain Johnson decided to take the prize to Nassau, where she was libeled. Before the Admiralty Court, he argued that the cargo on board the sloop was not suitable for New Orleans. The fact that the ship was taken off the coast of Cuba with cargo usually sent to the Spanish colony was the reason given by Captain Johnson to sustain the libel. The court found this argument lacking and ordered the prize dismissed.
Newcomb’s Contentiousness
Captain Newcomb got himself further into trouble in New Orleans. Late in 1805, he inexplicably filed an action in federal court on behalf of himself and the crew against the owner of the Felicity, Jean Baptiste Labatut, for salvage. Labatut was outraged, arguing that because a state of war did not exist between Great Britain and the United States, congressional statutes did not afford the petitioners a cause for action. After a hotly contested trial, judgment found in favor of Captain Newcomb and his crew for $1,750.
The court’s decision only heightened Labatut’s anger. He purchased space in a New Orleans newspaper and used it to rebuke the court and Captain Newcomb:
“I remained perfectly quiet on the event of so extraordinary a suit. But I was mistaken. . . . The only article of the laws of Congress which I thought might be applicable to the present case, if we were at war, or in a state of hostilities with England. . . . but as that law grants for salvage one eighth part of the property rescued from the bank of the enemy, it seems as if that had appeared rather too much for saving mine from this kind of danger. . .
In spite of his disappointment, Labatut was compelled to admit the benefits of the Louisiana’s action.
“I still entertained some grateful idea for the paternal care of our government, so little did I expect that I should ever have to pay for it.”
Until 17 June 1806, the Louisiana was the only federal armed ship in the Louisiana Territory. On that date, Gunboat 13 and Gunboat 14 arrived and were placed under the command of Captain John Shaw, U.S. Navy.
Despite her heroic beginning, the Louisiana’s effectiveness was undercut by her ever-controversial captain. Newcomb suffered from intemperance and often quarreled with his junior officers. So intolerable was service under Newcomb that officers either resigned or requested transfer. Often the cutter could not sail because there were no commissioned officers other than Newcomb. These problems continued until September 1807. Severely damaged in a storm, the Louisiana returned to New Orleans for repairs. During the time that the Louisiana was laid up, Captain Newcomb took part in another duel. Although its cause and Newcomb’s opponent are unknown, it is known that Newcomb was wounded seriously when a bullet passed through his body. During a long recovery period, the collector of revenue assumed Newcomb’s responsibilities. After reviewing the ship’s records and discussions with the crew, the collector concluded that the captain suffered from poor business judgment as well as a prickly personality. The collector recommended to the Secretary of the Treasury that Newcomb be dismissed. Soon thereafter, President Thomas Jefferson relieved Newcomb of command.
The cutter continued to serve the Revenue Service, and in 1810 was sought by the Navy to carry troops. She remained at New Orleans after news of the declaration of war with England reached New Orleans in July of 1812. In August, a powerful hurricane struck the city, sinking and damaging many naval and merchant vessels. The cutter was sunk, and after her guns were removed, she was auctioned in her sunken state. Her new owner had her raised and placed in mercantile service.
