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which magazine is full and which is empty.
A tactically correct method of reloading is to pivot the weapon in the hand until the magazine release can be pressed with the thumb of the shooting hand, but delay pressing the release until the new magazine is in hand and under control, and only then depress the release to drop the empty magazine. Another tactically correct method is to pull the new magazine out of the magazine carrier and press the magazine release with the thumb of the non-shooting hand. Neither method employs the “safety” (since the weapon is still being fired), yet both avoid the low-light guessing game that can occur if the empty magazine is dropped too soon.
Although stoppages do not occur often, when they do they tend to occur at the most inopportune time. Hence, the Marine Corps adopted the procedure known to civilian shooters as the “slap, rack, bang” technique for clearing stoppages. Certain stoppages, however, require a different technique. The first stoppage, the stovepipe, is readily apparent to the Marine because it is blocking the front sight from view. The Manual teaches the Marine to “rake across the top of the slide with the nonshooting hand, pulling back on the stuck case and allowing for the chambering of a new round”—correct idea; wrong technique. Typically, the case flips out of the ejection port, but the shooter does not have enough force in his hand to pull the slide back far enough to pick up a new round. A better method is to grip the slide with the nonshooting hand over the ejection port and the stovepiped case between two fingers. “Racking” the slide back to pick up the new round, the case is left in the Marine’s hand once the slide is released.
The second stoppage requiring a different technique is the double-feed. This stoppage can occur in several forms, either one round in the chamber with the second round pushed up behind it— preventing the slide from going home; or, no rounds in the chamber and two rounds blocking each other from entering the chamber. The Manual recommends “. . . pulljing] back on the slide with the nonshooting hand, hold[ing] the slide back, and rotat[ing] the pistol to either side in an attempt to have the stuck rounds dislodge and fall out.” This technique would work for the latter doublefeed, but not for the former. Since a Marine involved in a fire-fight does not have the time to diagnose which double-feed has occurred, he should be taught the technique that will work on both forms of this stoppage. He should remove the magazine and hold it between the small finger and the next finger of the shooting hand, rack the slide back and forth three times to ensure that the stoppage has been cleared, reinsert the magazine, and charge the pistol to complete firing.
The actual qualification course of fire consists of:
► Single-action slow fire at 25 yards with 15 rounds in ten minutes
► Double-action quick fire at 25 yards with five single shots with four seconds per shot (all double-action)
► Six rounds of sustained fire at 15 yards using the “three round, reload, three round” course of fire; two strings fired with 25 seconds per string
► Two-shot quick reaction drills at seven yards with one double-action shot followed by a single-action shot; four drills fired with four seconds per drill
Phase Three: Field Range Firing—In this phase, Marines may enhance their proficiency with the M-9 pistol. “Marines engaged in this phase of training will learn how to draw the pistol quickly and fire effectively on a target in a variety of situations and time limits.” Three new skills are presented in this phase: the draw, the use of the kneeling and standing barricade positions, and the weak hand firing technique. The presentation of the draw is well done and the techniques are easy for a new shooter to learn and employ effectively. Although the doctrine states the only reason for including the weak hand barricade positions is for familiarization, there seems to be no real purpose in teaching a Marine to switch hands whenever he leans around the left side of an object. If the Marine is to be exposed to a weak hand position, there should be a reason for him to use it. such as inability to use the strong hand because of injuries. In the same vein, there should be a strong-hand-only position to emulate his inability to use his weak hand for some reason.
The course of fire for this phase is the Close Combat Course. Consisting of the same quick reaction drills as the Qualification Course at three and seven yards, the Marine is now also drawing the weapon from the holster. He then moves to the ten and 15 yard lines and fires a seven and six shot string respectively, coming from the holster in both of them- The last position of fire is the barricade- The Marine fires weak, strong, and point-shoulder barricade positions in 45 seconds with nine rounds (three fr°n1 each) at 25 yards.
The three-phase concept, with each phase building upon the previous one, Is sound. This approach to marksmanship combined with the quality Beretta 9-mm- pistol are part of the cornerstone of what the Marine Corps strives for: “. . . mastery of the fundamentals that distinguish [Marines] as the world’s finest marksmen.”
Lieutenant Money, a 1987 graduate of the UNaval Academy, attended the American Pistol Ihst1' tute Basic Pistol Course in August 1986 and the American Pistol Institute Intermediate Pistol Course in June 1987, receiving a rating of expert. He lS currently attending the Basic School in Quantico. Virginia.
Superconductivity: Super Opportunity
By Colonel James E. Mrazek, U. S. Army (Retired)
Almost overnight, we are entering the age of the superconductor. According to many scientists, this new form of electrical power transmission promises to equal or surpass the dramatic technological changes brought by the transistor and later by the laser.
Competing against Japan and other countries, the United States is in a hectic race to find superconductive materials for technological exploitation, and to develop applications that will benefit national security. “A year in the past is a day now,” according to physicist T. Nakahara of Sumito Electric Industries, Limited of Japan. In such a fast-paced and challenging environment, it behooves the Navy to become more familiar with superconductivity and to watch for and seize the opportunities it offers.
The Nature of Superconductivity• When electricity passes through conventional copper wire, resistance builds. Although it is able to overcome this resistance, some of the electricity is consumed in the process. Thus, before a current heats a soldering iron, rotates a gun turret, or lifts a jet fighter on a carrier's elevators to the flight deck, up to 20% of th6 applied power is lost.
52-mile superconducting super collider (SSC)—the argest particle accelerator ever designed—has been Proposed that would search for the fundamental enti- ,!es a,'d forces that govern the nature of all things, -stunates are that the new warm superconductors H°l|ld shrink the size of the collider to ten miles.
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FROM POPULAR SCIENCE WTTH PERMISSION © 1987 TIMES MIRROR MAGAZINES. INC.)
Ofllv * —acmcvc uiij) cuiiuiuuii
]jq ■ y bathing a conductor in expensive 4l'q<> edum t0 lower its temperature to Fahrenheit, 300° colder than dry
Wh Up®rconductivity is a phenomenon mat* ■ e*ectricity can pass through a duc(erial wdp no energy loss. When a con- to .,0r meets this requirement it is raised A,6, cateSory of “superconductor.” cov tl0U®^ superconductivity was dis- a *ed.in 1911, the full range of military com ICat'ons has been limited by high Was andcomPlex>ty- Until mid-1986, it Possible to achieve this condition
ice mIn late 1986, a ceramic containing sUne °x'des was produced that became in ^conducting at -270° when bathed |CanpUld nitrogen, which was a warming Phvs'°' +149°. Last March, eminent suDlcist Paul C. W. Chu was foreseeing A moC°ndUCtivity at a “balmy” -240°. c|u„- nt” later there was a report of incon- r0ri6 s'8ns °f superconductivity at g temperatures.
ab0ue.Cause nitrogen costs $.22 a liter, or sUpe0ne'twentieth the cost of helium, si0nr^0nductivity using nitrogen immer- Ptirth 3S become an economical option. hand|Crni0re’ 'ess equipment is needed to lion 6 n'tro8en than helium. This reduc- substm refrigeration gear translates into teanbaHy lighter-weight cooling sys- P°ssih^r S°me military equipment than is This r ° W'dl current “helium” systems. 'Sbter weight, cheaper cooling will >t attractive to develop many new
systems.
Uncertain Materials: The new metal- ized ceramics, often referred to as “high”- temperature or “warm” superconductors, are composed of at least three elements combined with oxygen into a complex crystalline structure. One such grouping that was successfully tested recently was lanthanum, barium, and copper. Although ceramics are promising, they are delicate—primarily because they are so brittle. Moreover, their atomic nature and behavior are far from understood. Engineers face a host of problems trying to fashion them into flexible conductors that can be tightly wound or made into tiny, multilayered, computer chips. However, wire-thin rods, rings, tapes, and thin films have been fabricated.
If warm superconductors can be perfected, they promise to revolutionize almost all uses of electricity. Until May 1987, the best guess was that a usable product is at least ten years away. However, with national and international competition as intense as it is, and with many thousands of scientists involved in the quest, that time could be cut in half.
The elements, such as the exotic clays, plastic, and metal traces, in the new superconducting compounds, are, fortunately, easy to find and cheap enough for even small research laboratories to purchase. In addition, producing the bulk form of metalized ceramic has not been difficult. Some have been produced by simply using the pharmacist’s mortar and pestle to grind and compound the materials, form them into pellets, and bake them at high temperatures. However, from that point, the processes used to transform the materials into wires, tapes, or other usable conductor forms become complicated, taking almost as many directions in the processes used as there are scientists embarked on the quest.
Applications and Benefits: To its credit, the Department of Defense (DoD) was the first agency to fund superconductivity on a broad scale. For more than 40 years, while little was being done elsewhere, it contributed to the basic science of superconductivity, to the technology, and to putting it to practical use. fhe DoD focused early efforts on infrared detectors, primitive computer switches, and magnetically levitated gyroscopes.
The DoD developed and perfected the critically important Josephson junction technology. Predicted in 1962 by Brian D. Josephson, it is a phenomenon that occurs where two superconductors are separated by a thin insulator. Such devices can do everything that a transistor does, but much faster and without making heat. Josephson junctions are the fastest switches known, and because of their speed are ideal for use in computers, where current switching methods slow processing. According to Dr. Ronald L.
fi
Kerber, Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Advanced Technology, the Josephson technology is now used for the detection of weak electromagnetic signals that range from low- to high-microwave frequencies, and for other military applications. Much of this technology has been transferred to the civilian sector, where it is found in magnetic sensors used in hospitals for brain scans and heart examinations, and by geologists to locate minerals.
In the area of superconducting electronics, the DoD has developed efficient, high-speed signal processors, including a powerful superconducting computer. Another DoD effort, in conjunction with Hypers, Inc., has led to the development of the world’s fastest sampling oscilloscope, which displays an electrical wave on a fluorescent screen. It has been turned into a diagnostic tool for testing and developing high-speed semiconducting circuits for military systems.
Perhaps the first commercial field to benefit from superconductors on a large scale will be the computer industry. Today’s computers have diminished in size about as far as possible because the miniature circuits inside are so densely packed and produce so much heat that if they were to generate more heat they would come close to melting. Even if they could be made smaller, computers could not work much faster because the speed that electronic impulses flash through the circuitry is limited by the resistance in the material. If circuits can be replaced with heat- and resistance-free superconducting material, higher-performance computers would result, and shoe-box size ceramic- chip superconducting computers would replace today’s room-size silicon-chip supercomputers.
The electric utility companies will also benefit greatly. Copper now is the conductor of choice for power lines because it carries current economically. However, the amount of electricity transmitted through it that is lost in overcoming resistance results in a loss of $200 million a year for some utilities. In addition to the savings a superconducting cable would realize, it would run underground, eliminating high tension pylons and overhead power lines and allowing power plants to be located in remote areas.
In terms of large-scale superconductivity technology, the U. S. Navy has demonstrated the feasibility of using superconducting generators and motors on board ship. According to Dr. Kerber, “These are replacements for heavy and cumbersome reduction gears for transferring high [revolutions per minute] power from a gas turbine to low [revolutions per minute] power needed to drive a ship’s propeller.”
As early as 1969, the David Taylor Naval Ship Research and Development Center at Annapolis, Maryland, began development of superconductive electric propulsion systems. The first complete system consisted of a homopolar generator supplying power to a homopolar motor. In 1980, it was installed in the test vessel Jupiter II, which became the first craft in history to be propelled by a completely superconductive electric drive.
lium-cooled, streamlined, podded, superconducting electric drive that would be located aft under a ship’s hull. Among the advantages that such a system offers are that energy consumption is reduced, less space is required in the hull for machinery, less noise occurs because there is no reduction gear, and there is no propeller shaft within the hull. Disadvantages are that the motor is exposed to damage, and ship’s turning radius is increased. Use of pods for frigates and destroyers are under study.
In other applications, superconductive magnets now provide high magnetic fields required for millimeter-wave gyroton tubes essential for advanced microwave and millimeter-wave surveillance, guidance, and communications systems. Also, a lightweight ultra-high- power-density superconducting generator developed by the Air Force to provide electrical power for airborne lasers appears to have naval applications.
Heat buildup in sensors, amplifiers, and other electronic equipment places limits on their use and further development. Since superconductors produce no heat, these limits could be dramatically extended.
Because liquid helium is not easy to use and requires cumbersome equipment to cool conductors, the DoD pursued the development of efficient refrigerator systems. According to Dr. Kerber:
“One miniature refrigerator was
developed with a cold region con
tained in a thumbnail-size chip. [I* has] not yet achieved the very 1°* temperatures required for the earlier [liquid helium] generation of superconducting devices. Nevertheless, ll is [already] finding use for cooling semiconductor infrared sensors m missile guidance systems and f°r cooling high speed semiconductor
chips. Now that the era of higher temperature superconductivity has arrived, this remarkable little refrig' erator will be used to cool superconducting sensors and electronics.”
One of the most promising uses f°r superconductors is in generating electric power at naval bases worldwide under better circumstances and at far cheaper prices. Since there would be no waste ot electricity because of heat and resistance, millions of dollars in fuel and other costs could well be saved. Electric generators and power plants would not have to be placed close to shore facilities, but rather could be located in distant, non-strategic areas from which electricity could be transmitted over long distances to dockside without power loss. Another advantage is that superconducting electromagnets could store power until it is needed- thus eliminating the wasteful practice dissipating it during periods of low use- Such stored power could be tapped just prior to a naval operation, when demand reaches a peak.
Dr. Craig I. Fields, the Deputy Director for Research at the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, cites additional potential advantages that superconductors may one day bring to the Navy-
“The design of current nuclear submarines is driven by the need to keep the weight in the middle and by rhL inefficiency of their low temperature steam plants. Superconducting m0’ tors, generators, and power transmission can help the [submarine’s] balance problem by reducing weight am This would also allow for installati°n j of weapons launchers aft, perhaps doubling the lethality of each boat- ^ factor of perhaps five [in] impr°vt: ment in propulsion efficiency is poss1' ble if the heat of the reactor can be converted directly to electricity using thermoelectric designs. This has no been possible before due to the nee ; for high current, low-voltage povvcr transmission. If the new superconduc tors could be made insensitive to radi . ation within the reactor, then th'j j ship’s size could be cut at least in ha while doubling its speed. . . .” Another advantage, he points out, is *h‘’j “low noise at these high speeds mign
p S° possible with an electromagnetic opulsion system utilizing supercon- duct>ng magnets.”
w area where superconductivity
ve|U • Prove beneficial is in hyper- ers°CT^ electroma§netic missile launch- net' *° atta'n hiese speeds, large mag^ c fields are needed. Existing Sj . Uct*ve materials create too much reeIVe heat, wasting about half the en-
"W' HmPUt' '/^ccorfi'nS to Dr. Fields, tth the new high-temperature ceramic ^conductors, launcher efficiency ^ , approach 100% resulting in simpler anj lnes> smaller power requirements, the 6hmination of cooling systems and mat013*stresses ” Whh superconductive ers ena*s’ magnets used in such launch- 2Q VVouicl drop in weight from 2,000 to anaP°Unds’ realizing profound tactical a"d strategic applications. tivitn a,rnore modest scale, superconduc- e| "V w’ii iead to compact, more efficient ins flC motors to propel launches, land- thesCra^’ and ships. It is predicted that could suPerconducting electric motors end ProPei such vessels for miles on need3111* l^e'r batteries would scarcely read rec*lar8in8- The U. S. Navy has al- inen^ exPerimented with such equip- inv ' ^ad Japanese shipbuilders have fast ^ million on prototypes of
^agnetically driven ships.
COnd 1 e these are some uses for superhut aUCtors by the Navy, they represent The fraction of the potential uses, rnem °P medical diagnostic equip-
ple AC]°U^d a'so reaP benefits, for exam- in us ■ ough present imaging machines suPer m Navy hospitals currently rely on matConducting magnets, new ceramic rials promise the development of far more powerful magnets. Machines could increase the quality of images many times and at a greatly decreased cost, since cooling systems would be reduced in size and complexity or eliminated entirely.
Certainly, the Navy will benefit from superconductive technology used in the development of the “flying” train, already a reality in Japan. Such magnetically levitated, or maglev, trains float approximately 6 to 12 inches above the rails on a magnetic field that holds them firmly and quietly over the tracks, without pollution, at dizzying speeds of 320 miles per hour. The ability to produce such a train depends largely on small powerful magnets. An added advantage to a maglev train is that friction is so insignificant that only a modest force is needed to propel it once it levitates above the tracks. Still, some scientists claim that Japan’s maglev will be obsolete with the introduction of the new, high-temperature superconductors.
Does magnetic levitation offer possibilities for launching aircraft from carriers or short take-off fields? If such applications were realized, aircraft could be launched at 250 knots versus the present 170 knots. Such a launch system offers tantalizing possibilities for launching missiles as well.
Although the future of superconductors is now rife with conjecture, hope prevails. A great amount of research and development must yet be undertaken to get materials with good superconducting properties and to develop useful composite superconducting wires and tapes, thin film superconductors for electronics, and the engineering systems that will use them. The best bet is that computers will benefit first, followed by generators and motors next, and, by the turn of the century, domestic maglev trains and many military weapons and equipment with maglev applications as well as an unknown plethora of items.
While there is a welling of optimism in scientific circles that other significant breakthroughs will occur soon, a few respected scientists in the field of low- temperature, solid-state physics are more guarded, citing that there is only hazy proof for some of the claims thus far reported. Still, as the Washington Times notes, “If progress continues even to the point that they can prompt the phenomenon at temperatures close to zero degrees Fahrenheit, it could change forever the way we live”—indeed an exciting thought.
Colonel Mrazek, an infantry officer, served as a battalion and later regimental commander in an airborne division during World War II. He is a graduate of the U. S. Military Academy, West Point, and is a previous contributor to the Proceedings. He has authored seven books and many articles that have been published in the United States and abroad.
The Safety Net
Our light cruiser had been torpedoed by a Japanese submarine. We were separated from the force with a two-destroyer screen. We had a 40-foot hole in our port side aft, were down by the stem, and listing 15° to port. A call had gone out for an ocean tug to help us save our ship.
About two days after we were hit, a tug appeared on the horizon. By talk-between-ships (TBS) she said, “Hello, Coronet, this is Red Wing; do you read me?—over.”
We replied, “Hello, Red Wing, this is Bayonet—repeat B-A-Y-O-N-E-T—Bayonet. We’re glad to see you. We read you 5x5, over.”
To this we received, “Hello, Bayonet, this is Red Wing. Sorry, we’re looking for Coronet— out.” With that, she hightailed away over the horizon.
Swiftly, our skipper ordered a destroyer to overtake the tug and to bring her back, by force if necessary. We couldn’t believe that our derelict but major warship, quite in the middle of nowhere, could so readily be abandoned by a tug sent to that position to provide repair and rescue.
The Coronet proved to be a liberty ship operating 3,000 miles away. But orders is orders!
Harold T. Berc
(The Naval Institute will pay $25.00 for each anecdote published in the Proceedings)