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The nations and the navies of North and East Asia, Australasia, and Oceania are extraordinarily hard to describe in comparative terms because of their enormous diversity. No clear political combinations equivalent to those in Europe exist, and the only proper means by which to describe the progress of each is to divide them into regional groupings.
It is certain that the entire area is engaged in a period of unprecedented naval expansion. There are a number of reasons for this fact. First, few nations are pleased with the increasing Soviet maritime presence in the Pacific and Indian oceans. Despite U. S. attempts to demonstrate a practical counter-presence with its carrier battle groups, these are not generally felt to be sufficient or, given U. S. global commitments, durable in the long term.
Second, every navy, with the possible exception of Vietnam’s, is more inclined to self-reliance than was once the case. All the Asian countries are looking much more to indigenous facilities, or else to other nations in the region for new construction, rather than to the United States or Europe. South Korea is fast becoming the naval shipyard of Asia, and only domestic sentiment and its constitution prevent Japan from taking up much of the remaining work.
Third, the navies under consideration are becoming increasingly preoccupied by the demands of the extended economic limits. Particularly in the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) group, coastal defense is giving way to sea control out to 200 miles, and, as a result, both patrol and fighting units are becoming larger and more sophisticated. Their emphasis on the construction of base facilities and tenders also indicates an increasing realization of the eternal requirement for proper and plentiful support.
North and East Asia
Japan: The development of the Japanese Maritime Self Defense Force (JMSDF) is proceeding in several directions. Sixteen efficient conventional submarines in service or under construction comprise the principal offensive force. These units, which are being armed with Mk-48 torpedoes and Sub Harpoon antiship missiles, constitute a major threat to Soviet Pacific Fleet vessels operating from Vladivostok.
Japan’s commitment to the protection of its commerce is demonstrated by the fact that the JMSDF possesses 50 destroyers and frigates, primarily configured for antisubmarine warfare. This emphasis is most clearly reflected in the Shirane and Haruna classes of helicopter-carrying destroyers which each carry three HSS-2 Sea King helicopters and possess fine qualities of endurance. The air ASW force is being augmented by 37 P-3C Orion long-range maritime patrol aircraft which will gradually replace the JMSDF’s more numerous P-2 Nep- tunes.
The destroyers and frigates presently entering service with the JMSDF are interesting for a number of reasons. The Hatsuyuki-class destroyers differ from previous Japanese construction and are very similar in design to the French Georges Leagues class and the NATO "Standard frigate. Similarly, the I shikari-class frigate and the follow-on class are about the same size as the Danish Niels Jnel class of light frigate and have comparable weapon systems- These classes represent a departure from the past preoccupation with ASW and will serve as small, econom-
The one-of-a-kind frigate Ishikari (226) displaces l,200 tons (standard). The succeeding Yubari class will be 200 tons larger. Both designs are powered by one Rolls Royce Olympus gas turbine or one Mitsubishi diesel driving two shafts.
ical escorts in coastal waters.
The introductions of Harpoon antiship missiles. Phalanx close-in weapon systems. Sea Sparrow surface-to- air missiles (SAM), and the ubiquitous OTO Melara 76-mm. Compact gun into the JMSDF are welcomed, since many of the weapon systems currently in service are obsolete. It is remarkable that up to this time so few Japanese ships have carried any form of a SAM system in a navy that has to operate in so potentially hostile an air environment.
With Japan’s emphasis upon selfdefense, the present light attack force of five torpedo boats and three large Patrol boats is too small to meet the requirements. Since these vessels require replacement, a program of fast missile craft, such as the Flagstaff-2 Patrol missile hydrofoil, would give the JMSDF a potent weapon against surface combatants. Such a design has, indeed, been under study for some time, but only small numbers are contemplated.
The mine warfare force, on the other hand, is in excellent condition, with 40 units in service and additional minesweepers under construction. It is possible that if ever Japan moves into combatant construction for other nations, mine countermeasure vessels will be the first to be produced because of their defensive nature.
The construction of a second small Underway replenishment ship indicates an interest by the JMSDF in oceanic warfare and the Japanese realization that the protection of seaborne commerce cannot be confined to the waters immediately surrounding the homeland.
The next few years will be critical for the JMSDF and will probably see significant improvements in expertise in all warfare areas, brought about by an increasing willingness to exercise with other nations out of Japanese home waters. So far, Japan has been largely content to adopt U. S. systems and perfect their operation. The enormous capacity of the Japanese electronics industry can be further exploited to provide a greater proportion of weapon systems wholly Japanese in concept and design.
North Korea: North Korea’s navy has as its mainstay a force of “Romeo”- and “Whiskey”-class patrol submarines. At least 17 of these boats are in service, and they would be the major offensive weapon in the event of another war with South Korea. The surface forces comprise a nucleus of frigates and fast missile cralt supported by numerous gun vessels. These units are probably intended for coastal operations against the more numerous South Korean large surface ships. A most interesting development is the reported construction of a number of small coastal submarines.
South Korea: South Korea is, in terms of indigenous naval construction, one of the most advanced maritime nations in Asia. Many designs are being produced, with an eye not only to the requirements of the South Korean Navy, but the large and increasing export market in the region.
Current construction programs range from a frigate and large, sophisticated fast missile craft to small patrol boats. For its part, the South Korean Navy seems to be emphasizing large missile craft designed for defense against North Korean incursions. At least eight “PSMM-5"-class missile boats have been constructed, and these will probably be followed by more. Given the need tor com- mand-and-control platforms and for some defense against the large and increasing North Korean submarine force, a frigate program to replace the existing ten old destroyers would appear to be a high priority, but financial restrictions seem to have delayed activity in this area.
China: China appears to have recommenced the program of naval expansion which was interrupted by the political convulsions of the last decade. The appearance of a formidable force off Fiji in 1980 as part of the Chinese ICBM tests revealed a theretofore unsuspected oceanic capability in the Chinese Navy. Not only were a number of “Luta”-class guided missile destroyers included in the force, but two new Fuqing-class replenishment ships participated and displayed considerable ability in abeam underway replenishment.
Recent visits to China by Western naval units have enabled observers to gain a much better appreciation of the Chinese Navy. While naval units appear well maintained, the lack of modern weapon systems and sensors, not to mention the lack of combat information centers, means that the Chinese Navy faces a great challenge if it hopes to become a modern and efficient force in the future.
Much has been said about Chinese eagerness to obtain Western defense equipment and technology;—without one concrete sign of any initiative in this direction. Either funds are woefully short, or this eagerness is only a figment of the imagination of the Western defense community. It is difficult to foresee a successful Chinese attempt to close the technological gap solely through its own scientific community. Nonetheless, two nuclear- powered attack submarines have been completed, and the first nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine was reported to have been launched in April 1981.
Even with limited fiscal resources, the Chinese Navy would gain much by procuring overseas naval technology on which local series production could be based. This is reportedly being done in association with Great Britain, which is providing missile and electronic systems to update new units of the conceptually obsolescent “Luta” class.
China maintains a large submarine fleet, but little is known of the capa-
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ROYAL NEW ZEALAND NAVY
The Chinese Navy has proven that it can operate far from its shores. Here, one “Luta”-class DDG comes alongside a Fuqing-c/ass replenishment ship while another “Lula” waits her turn.
bilities of the newer boats.Construction of light forces will continue because of the great utility of missile craft on the extremely long and convoluted Chinese coastline.
Whether the Chinese Navy ever begins to make its presence felt in the West Pacific depends upon the political atmosphere in Bejing (Peking). Nevertheless, the foundations have definitely been laid for the establishment of a true oceangoing force.
Taiwan: Forced by the Chinese- U. S. accommodation to the realization that, in the event of a war with China, Taiwan may have to stand alone, the Taiwanese are redeveloping their naval forces to protect the country against Chinese incursions. This program has two main goals.
The first is the establishment of a submarine force. Having acquired two U. S. Guppy II-class submarines in 1973 for ASW training and having now rearmed both, the Taiwanese have begun to develop a core of submarine warfare expertise. Two Walrus-class submarines have been ordered from the Netherlands, and when these arrive in the mid-1980s, Taiwan will possess two of the most efficient conventional submarines in the world. Despite Chinese protests to the Netherlands, the program will proceed. It is quite possible that the first pair will be followed by more, perhaps built in Taiwan.
The second line of development involves fast missile craft, a type of obvious utility in Taiwan’s situation. Although construction of the U. S.- designed “PSMM-5" class was begun in Taiwan, this was halted because U. S. weapons and systems were not readily available. Now Taiwan is developing its own smaller fast missile craft, armed with the Hsiung Feng missile, a Taiwanese version of the Israeli Gabriel. This use of Israeli technology is an intriguing development and probably augers further cooperation in the years ahead.
Such cooperation could extend to larger projects. There have been ru
mors of the construction of a frigate in Taiwan, built not only with Israeli but with South African assistance. If this is so, Taiwan could become the naval shipyard for the outcasts of the United Nations.
Certainly the construction of a squadron of frigates would be the logical third part of any Taiwanese naval improvement program, providing the fast missile craft with the support they require and ensuring the Taiwanese some open-ocean merchant shipping-
Vietnam: The Vietnamese Navy is being rebuilt with Soviet assistance. The numerous ex-U. S. ships and the large amount of equipment captured in 1975 may be by now relatively useless, but a steady and moderate acquisition program appears to be under way, relying upon Soviet equipment- The transfers of “Osa-II”- and “Sher- shen”-class fast attack craft and ”Pe' tya-II”-class frigates indicate that the Vietnamese still are concerned mainly with coastal defense. _
However, given Vietnamese ambitions, larger and more sophisticated vessels probably will be transferred in the near future. The ‘‘Koni”-class frigates, already a Soviet favorite for export, would be obvious additions to
the force. Transfer of three “Pol- nocny”-class amphibious landing ships in 1979 and 1980 may also mark the rejuvenation of what was already a substantial if aged amphibious warfare capability.
Burma: Burma is concentrating attention upon fishery protection, rather than naval matters. Although the navy continues to operate craft of principally World War II vintage, the Osprey-class In Daw is in service with the Pearl and Fisheries Ministry, and two more of the type are being built in Denmark. Although the hybrid design received little acclaim in Europe, reports are that the In Daw has operated efficiently in her offshore patrol role.
ASEAN
Although particularly concerned by the increasing maritime activity of the Soviets, and keen upon a continuing and strong U. S. presence in the region, the partners in ASEAN (Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and the Philippines) are determined to maintain their own security.
Lacking the coherence of NATO, the group is vulnerable to the reemergence of territorial disputes, such as occurred in the mid-1960s between Indonesia and Malaysia. This risk is heightened by the development of the concept of exclusive economic zones. The ASEAN nations, however, know that they have more to lose than gain from internecine squabbles. The ASEAN nations are engag- mg in combined naval exercises without the involvement of Western pavies, and this increased cooperation 's doing much to raise the skills and e*pertise of the units involved.
Thailand: The Thai Navy is presently modernizing both its fighting and Patrol components. The three small but relatively modern frigates have been joined by six fast missile craft armed with Exocet or Gabriel surface- to-surface missiles, and two gunarmed large patrol boats are being built in Italy. In addition, there is a Plan for the construction of modified Descubierta-class frigates in Spain. Three older ex-U. S. frigates badly need replacement, while additional numbers of patrol vessels will be required to renew the equally outdated Patrol force. Nonetheless, Thailand is developing a capability to build smaller combatant craft; and it recently has built new amphibious support craft and small auxiliaries.
The continuing upheavals in Indochina have forced an emphasis upon the coastal and riverine patrol forces. Largely equipped with U. S. vessels built for the war in Vietnam. Thai coastal forces are now being augmented by a small but steady production line of 104-foot patrol craft.
Malaysia: The Royal Malaysian Navy is developing in a number of interesting ways. Some 14 gun and missile attack craft constitute the principal fighting force, supported by the British-built frigates Rahmai and Hang Tuah. Hitherto, the latter have been used mainly as training platforms, but the Malaysians have realized the advantages conferred upon them by the possession of larger ships with their good seakeeping qualities, modern command and control facilities, and electronic warfare systems. Two light frigates are being built in West Germany, and the two frigates in service are to be modernized and rearmed with the French 100-mm. Compact gun.
In addition, the old “Ton”-class minesweepers are being replaced by at least four of the large and very capable Italian Lerici-class mine countermeasure vessels. A new class of patrol boats also is being built at Penang shipyard to begin replacement of the 22 Vosper 103-foot patrol boats still in service.
Although Malaysian ships have hitherto operated from Kd Malaya, the base at Woodlands in the Johore Straits, the new facilities at Lumut and Kuantan are coming along. The Malaysians are eager to remove themselves from any close association with the Singaporeans, and the Lumut base, Kd Pelandak, will be equipped to act as the principal operations and support center for the fleet.
In sum. the Royal Malaysian Navy is expanding steadily. Continuing acts of piracy in the Straits of Malacca, however, demonstrate that the inshore and coastal patrol elements, represented by 22 103-foot patrol boats, remain important. Another major concern for the Malaysians is the necessity to ensure that their technical proficiency continues to improve apace with their equipment.
The Malaysian frigate Hang Tuah first served in the Royal Navy. Given recent British Ministry of Defence decisions, more former Royal Navy ships may soon be flying colors other than the White Ensign.
Singapore: Singapore possesses a small but very efficient navy which is almost entirely concerned with the defense of the island against invasion or other attack. Singaporean units do not operate in conjunction with the Malaysian Navy but work as a part of the Singaporean strategy of defense in depth, by which any attack on Singapore is predicted to come from the Malayan Peninsula. Twelve fast attack craft comprise the striking force. All but four of these vessels were built in Singapore, and, since the newest unit was completed in 1975, the order of three larger patrol boats in 1980 comes as no surprise.
Apart from security patrols, the principal remaining function of the navy is the operation of an amphibious force centered upon three World War II-vintage LSTs. These units convey the army to joint exercises in Taiwan and other nations and, in wartime, would support the defense in depth.
Further development in the Singaporean Navy will probably concentrate upon the development of mine warfare forces and the acquisition of new landing ships and two or three light corvettes to support the attack craft.
Indonesia: Indonesia is pursuing a balanced fleet program, principally represented by the recent addition of two “Type-209” submarines from Germany, three light frigates from the Netherlands, and a combat-capable training frigate from Yugoslavia. Although the performance of these submarines is not known, there have been problems with the Fatahillah-class frigates, particularly in the operation of their gas turbine propulsion systems. Such difficulties are gradually improving and the commonality of the propulsion, weapons, and electronic systems of the new construction is noteworthy.
The Fatahillah class provides the Indonesian Navy with hard-hitting vessels well suited to the archipelagic region. In areas such as the Malacca Straits, they would have the advantage over the fast missile attack craft which previously dominated the region. The four ex-U. S. Claud Jones (DE-l033)-class frigates are still providing good service and can be expected to remain in commission until the end of the decade. The four new South Korean-built “PSMM-5” fast missile attack craft significantly strengthen the light forces and complement the Fatahillahs. Another four “PSMM-5s” are on order.
Indonesia is quite capable of building its own coastal patrol craft to replace the rapidly declining force of elderly units now in service, and a new program to construct large numbers of West German-designed “FPB-57”-class fast patrol boats at Surabaja may remedy the current deficiencies. The large but old amphib-
The Nanggala is the Indonesian Navy's second “Type-209” class submarine.
ious warfare component is being rejuvenated through the acquisition of 3,700-ton LSTs from South Korea; four were delivered in 1981 and two more are scheduled to arrive in 1982. Although plans call for the creation of a capable mine warfare force, no units have yet been ordered to replace the four remaining Soviet-built “T-43”- class minesweepers. The creation of an effective deep and shallow water mine countermeasures capability is a pressing requirement, and the announcement of an order for coastal minesweepers to be built in Europe is expected shortly.
Philippines: The Republic of the Philippines is not engaging in any substantial buildup of its naval forces. Certainly the age of the present 17- ship escort force indicates a definite need for reliefs, particularly following the loss of the frigate Data Kaliantiaw in a September 1981 typhoon.
The equally old medium-sized patrol craft are at last to be replaced by at least three “PSMM-5s” from South Korea. If these vessels prove to be a success, the Philippines may well concentrate upon progressive development of a compact force of fast missile craft backed by frigates to protect its coastline and economic zone. The republic has not announced any requirement for a submarine force and does not appear to have any interest in ASW. In this regard, the U. S. forces operating out of Subic Bay would probably ensure the safety of any seaborne trade with which the Philippines would be concerned.
For the remainder, Philippine emphasis is on internal security operations among the islands of the archipelago. Some 24 LSTs and four LSMs act in support of the army and as logistics vessels carrying stores, personnel, and fuel among government settlements. Although many have been rebuilt, these vessels will require replacement within the next decade, possibly by craft built in South Korea. A large number of 46-foot glass reinforced plastic patrol craft have been built in the Philippines and further construction may be expected. New patrol craft continue to arrive from the United States, and with three delivered in 1981. there are now 17 "Swift Mk-IIIs” in service; 25 small patrol boats were ordered from a U. S. firm in 1980.
Brunei: The Royal Brunei Malay Regiment Flotilla is becoming a potent force, obtaining its new construction from Singapore and much technical assistance and loan personnel from Great Britain. The three new Was- pada-class Exocet missile equipped patrol boats have proved a great success in service. No more such large craft will be purchased in the immediate future, but three 82-foot patrol boats were ordered from Vosper in Singapore in 1980.
Oceania/Australasia
Papua-New Guinea: Papua-New Guinea maintains a small naval force of Australian-built ships and still receives much assistance from Australia. With its principal bases a1 Manus Island and Port Moresby, the navy is largely concerned with fishery protection, as well as surveillance duties, and has enjoyed some success m the control of foreign fishing activity- Of five Attack-class boats, one, the Aitape. is being taken out of service to supply spare parts for the others. It is possible that Australia may he requested to provide replacements, perhaps more Attacks, or even units
of the Fremantle class built for the purpose. Two heavy landing craft of the Balikpapan class round out the force, and these very useful craft will also require replacement by the end of the decade.
Australia: Development of the
Royal Australian Navy (RAN) is proceeding broadly to a plan centered upon the acquisition of a new aircraft carrier. Following cutbacks announced in 1981 to the Royal Navy, one of the three Invincible-class light carriers became surplus. The uncompleted Ark Royal may be the best choice for the RAN because of the opportunity which would exist to fit U. S. electronics and weapon systems in common with the RAN’s guided missile destroyers and frigates. The Royal Navy is reluctant to offer this ship and would prefer to dispose of the Invincible. The final decision on the Australian carrier will be made shortly, but the choices—an Invincible, a modified Iwo Jima (LPH-2), or a modified sea control ship—make it difficult.
The long-awaited follow-on destroyer project is also proceeding. As many as six ships, based upon the Oliver Hazard Perry (FFG-7) design, are to be built at Williamstown Naval Dockyard, provided that certain improvements can be achieved in the yard’s productivity and industrial relations. Two FFGs, the Adelaide and Canberra, have already been completed in the United States, and two more are being built at Todd Shipyards in Seattle.
The Parramatta, the first "River”- class destroyer escort to emerge from half-life refit, was recommissioned in late 1981, and will be followed back into service before 1985 by the pair still undergoing refit.
The RAN’s single tanker, the Supply, is to be replaced by the Success, a replenishment ship of the French La Durance class building at Cockatoo Island Dockyard in Sydney. The Success will be commissioned in the mid- 1980s and will be followed into service by a second ship of the class. Other construction includes the new Fre- ntantle-dass patrol boats building in Cairns. Three were commissioned in 1981 and will be followed by 16 more over the next half decade. After some initial design problems, the Freman- des are proving successful in service.
Further development may include a larger class of patrol vessel, perhaps of corvette size, to cope with the severe weather conditions found around the Bass Strait oil fields, as well as other requirements brought about by the introduction of the 200-mile limit for Australia’s fishing zone.
The modified Sir Lancelot-class heavy landing ship Tobruk was completed in mid-1981 and is undergoing extensive trials. The Tobruk has joined the six Balikpapan-c\ass large landing craft to form a small amphibious squadron.
One area in which progress has not been occurring as expected is that of hydrography. The oceanographic vessel Cook was commissioned in 1981, but the 27-year-old converted boom defense vessel Kimbla remains in service without a successor in view. It is possible that the Kimbla may be replaced by a converted merchant or Government Service ship as an interim measure. Construction of a second hydrographic ship, similar to HMAS Flinders, is under consideration.
Two projects involve replacing the three aged “Ton”-class mine countermeasures vessels, all of which will be retired within the next two or three years. Tenders have been called for the construction of two minehunting catamarans. This 98-foot design is intended to provide a cheap and numerous alternative for inshore minehunting duties. At least six and as many as 12 may be ordered. In addition, it is expected that the RAN may purchase at least two and possibly three of the new British Brecon class. These ships would be bought straight from the production line, the first being put into service in 1984-85.
The submarine force is occupied with a weapons update program, which is proving a great success. The Oxley and Otway have already been recommissioned, equipped with new passive and active sonars and digital fire control computers, as well as Mk-48 torpedoes and Sub Harpoon. Two more units are presently being updated, and the final pair will follow within the next few years. The eventual replacement of the Oberons is under consideration.
blew Zealand: Like its Tasman neighbor Australia, New Zealand has studied the defense cuts announced by the British Government with interest. Over the past few years, the Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN) has encountered serious shortages of skilled personnel and financial restrictions. In response to this situation, the navy has had to tighten its belt, delaying the replacement of the elderly “Type-12” frigates Otago and Taranaki, and striving to maintain its standards on existing resources. In early 1981, the RNZN announced that instead of replacing Taranaki, she would be reengined with gas turbines and receive a helicopter deck. Now the plan, in the wake of the cuts in the Royal Navy, has been scrapped. Instead, the RNZN will acquire two Leander frigates, the Bacchante and Dido, which were declared surplus.
The Dido is an Ikara-fitted Leander and will be a welcome addition to the RNZN, providing it with a standoff ASW weapon. The Dido also introduces a combat data system (ADAWS) to the RNZN. The Bacchante was scheduled for her modernization in 1982, and it will be interesting to see what sort of improvements she will receive before she enters New Zealand service.
New Zealand’s situation is not helped by the increasing requirement for fisheries and resources protection patrols. Since there is nothing in size between the four frigates and the quartet of 107-foot "Lake’’-class patrol boats, the former must be employed for the bulk of oceanic work. A case could certainly be made for the need to purchase simple light frigates or corvettes. The eventual outcome may very well be in favor of numbers rather than sophistication.
Fiji: Fiji possesses a small force consisting of three ex-U. S. coastal minesweepers (MSCs) employed as patrol vessels and a surveying ship. New Zealand and Australia provide some assistance with the force’s training and support. Although the aging MSCs may be expected to run for at least five more years, it is probable that they will be replaced by smaller, more numerous, and faster patrol vessels built in Fiji. An interesting innovation is the conversion of two MSCs to mount a light helicopter platform, a facility of obvious benefit in surveillance and fisheries patrols around the islands.
Lieutenants Goldrick and Jones are active duty naval officers in the Royal Australian Navy. Lieutenant Goldrick is a frequent contributor to the Proceedings: an article he has written on the U. S. Naval Academy will be appearing in the April issue.