Military budgets continue to tighten in many regions of the world, especially among NATO members, where countries suffer fallout from the ongoing economic crisis combined with the often high operational tempo placed on their armed forces during the past decade. In other global regions, however, naval arms proliferate as power shifts to those navies increasingly able to invest, build, and operate (if not design) advanced new fleets of submarines, surface ships, and naval aircraft.
This review of the world’s navies presents a snapshot of activities and developments during the past year. It is arranged by region, with nations discussed alphabetically under each subheading.
Australia/Asia
Australia’s Hobart-class Aegis air-warfare destroyers are literally coming together as block construction began on the first ship in spring 2010. Each destroyer is made up of 31 blocks; three of the ships are currently on order, making for a total of 93 blocks. Current plans call for the Hobart to enter service by early 2015; the second unit, the Brisbane, is due in 2016; the Sydney is to deliver by 2017. A fourth unit of the class is desired, which would add an additional 31 blocks to the construction process.
Australia has now accepted all upgraded Adelaide-class frigates, and the ships’ improved air-defense capabilities help bridge the gap until the Hobart class is ready for action. Eight new frigates are to eventually replace the Adelaides in the decades to come. In October 2010 the Anzac-class frigate HMAS Perth was fitted with a new radar mast, part of an upgraded combat suite for the warship. If tests prove successful, all Australian members of the class are to be similarly upgraded.
Work is beginning on the new offshore-combatant-vessel project, with 20 planned OCVs to replace 26 current units for mine countermeasures, offshore patrol, and hydrographic-research duties. Initial operational capability for the class is due around 2018. To aid with fleet logistics, new strategic sealift and logistics-support ships are also under development.
Australian power-projection and humanitarian/disaster relief efforts will get a boost when two new Spanish-designed 27,000-ton amphibious-assault ships, the Canberra and Adelaide, are delivered in 2014 and 2015 respectively.
A 12-boat submarine program eventually will replace the current class of six Collins-class submarines with service entry to begin around 2025. The Collins-class boats continue to suffer from reliability problems, and a new program office has been established to help address those shortfalls.
Australia is looking to purchase 24 new naval helicopters to replace its current generation of S-70 Seahawks. The future helicopter program is seeing strong competition between the European NH-90 naval helicopter and the American MH-60R. A decision between the two is expected this year, with deliveries of the aircraft to begin in 2014.
Bangladesh has been making modest additions and updates to its defense forces as it works to boost counterterrorism capabilities. In April 2010 16 25-foot Defender-class patrol boats were transferred to Bangladesh from the U.S. Coast Guard with at least five additional boats following soon thereafter. Bangladesh also recently purchased the retired British patrol ship Leeds Castle and her sister ship Dumbarton Castle. Both units were transferred from the United Kingdom in November 2010. Plans to purchase two Chinese-built versions of the modified Jiangwei-II class (also known as the F-22P) were announced in 2010.
The Royal Brunei Navy’s new offshore patrol vessels began sea trials in July 2010. The Darussalam, namesake of the class, is 80 meters long and was built in Bremen, Germany. The new OPVs are armed with Exocet antiship missiles and a 57-mm gun forward of the bridge, and are fitted with a large helicopter-landing deck aft. The new warship is one of three OPVs intended to replace the three Nakhoda Ragam (F2000)–class frigates that were ordered in 1998 but never accepted by Brunei’s government. The new Darussalam-class ships will join four 41-meter Ijhtihad-class patrol boats also built in Germany.
China caused heightened concerns around the world last summer when a senior Ministry of Defense spokesman declared “indisputable sovereignty” over the South China Sea. Fully aware that the piracy problems around the Horn of Africa can have a significant impact on its maritime trade, the People’s Liberation Army Navy began its sixth counterpiracy deployment in July 2010, sending the new Type 071 amphibious transport dock Kunlunshan and several other warships to play an active role in the region. The navy also sent its 10,000-ton hospital ship Peace Ark on her first overseas medical mission—to Djibouti, Kenya, Tanzania, the Seychelles, and Bangladesh.
As China’s anti-access capabilities grow, sources indicate that production may have begun on the 1,500-kilometer–range antiship ballistic-missile variant of the DF-21/CSS-5, designed to target and destroy large warships such as aircraft carriers; up to 80 missiles are likely to be in service by 2015.
According to the U.S. Department of Defense, China’s maritime order of battle currently consists of some 75 principal combatants, more than 60 submarines, 55 medium and large amphibious ships, and roughly 85 guided-missile patrol craft. Chinese shipbuilding is expanding, and the emphasis on modular construction permits the navy to build sizable numbers of larger warships and submarines. China is working to grow its defense-industrial base and is seeing significant financial success exporting its military wares around the globe. In early 2010 China launched the Yaogan-9 satellite, rumored to be an ocean-surveillance tool.
China’s second Kunlunshan-class LPD was launched in November 2010, and up to six total units of the class are planned, as are up to six Type 081 amphibious-assault ships. There are also reports that plans to build a new class of missile corvette, possibly called the Type 056, are in the works as well, joining roughly 60 Houbei-class (Type 022) catamaran-hulled guided-missile ships that have entered service in recent years.
In fall 2010, China launched its fourth Yuan-class (Project 041) diesel attack submarine, which is believed to operate with an air-independent propulsion system similar to the Swedish Stirling engine concept. As many as 15 additional Yuan-class units are planned, though production may instead switch to a new series that was launched at Wuhan shipyard and first reported last September. Work is ongoing for the Jin (Type 094) nuclear-powered ballistic-missile submarines, with plans for up to five of the class and at least one already in service. Two Shang-class (Type 093) nuclear-powered attack submarines are also reportedly in service, and as many as five new Type 095 nuclear-powered attack submarines are planned for the future.
All underwater construction, including shaft and propeller work, was complete by early 2010 on China’s first aircraft carrier, the ex-Varyag, now named Shilang. Chinese sensors and electronics are slowly being fitted aboard the hull as well. The ship is likely to be operational around 2012 for initial use as a training carrier. As many as four to six carrier battle groups may be planned for service by 2030, and a nuclear-powered aircraft carrier may be in the cards for the post-2020 time frame. To help gain carrier expertise, 50 Chinese naval aviators reportedly have been training in Brazil.
As India strives to make its defense industry more self-sufficient, it is grappling with the need to reduce inefficiencies ingrained in its bureaucratic acquisition process. Russia is still the primary source of Indian military imports, with Israel the second biggest supplier. The government is building strong ties, but remains reluctant to get too close to the United States.
The Indian navy is also working to expand its infrastructure, and Karwar naval base on the west coast is being enlarged to host up to 50 sizable warships, including aircraft carriers and nuclear submarines, by 2017. The 2008 Mumbai terrorist attacks still loom large in the nation’s consciousness, and the military continues to fund extra coastal police stations and increased training of personnel. In order to better monitor its 4,670-mile coastline, India has eight P-8I Poseidon maritime patrol aircraft on order from the United States, and an additional four are under consideration. Deliveries are due to begin in 2013.
India’s shipbuilding industry is working to modernize so that a larger percentage of the fleet can be built domestically. Published reports state that in Fiscal Years 2010–2011, Indian shipyards will have delivered 127 new ships to its navy and coast guard. One of India’s most capable new surface combatants was commissioned into service on 29 April 2010. The Shivalik is the first of a new class of Project 17 guided-missile frigates incorporating signature-reduction measures. At least two additional sister ships, the Satpura and Sahyadri, are expected to enter service by 2011. More frigates are planned, and last summer India inked a deal for seven follow-on warships built to a modified Project 17A design. Four new 2,000-ton offshore-patrol boats, also utilizing signature-reduction techniques, are now entering service, and five additional units may be built. India launched its first new Project 28 corvette in April 2010; she is due to commission sometime in 2012. Four new amphibious transport docks are planned for the future, and the fifth Magar-class tank landing ship entered service in 2010. Twelve new hovercraft have also been ordered for the Indian Coast Guard, with delivery expected by 2014.
The last of India’s Foxtrot-class submarines was retired from service in 2010, and there is a pressing requirement for replacements. Six new Scorpène-class submarines have been delayed but are now expected to enter service between 2014 and 2020. At least six additional submarines, of an as-yet-to-be-decided class, are also being sought. The navy is awaiting 2011 delivery of the Russian Akula-class submarine Nerpa, to be renamed the Chakra while under ten-year lease to the Indian fleet. The former Russian aircraft carrier Gorshkov, now renamed the Vikramaditya, is planned for delivery to India in 2013 or 2014 with operational service beginning around 2016. The new carrier will be equipped to fly MiG-29 fighters purchased from Russia and later the domestically produced Tejas light-combat aircraft.
Indonesia has a requirement to purchase two new submarines, preferably built domestically, and its two Type-209/1300 submarines are upgrading with South Korean assistance. Indonesia is also looking to build up its antiship capabilities and is in the market for new antiship cruise missiles to equip its older surface combatants.
The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) has been making great progress building a ballistic-missile-defense capability, and in late 2010 its forth BMD-capable destroyer, the Kirishima, completed certification of this new capability. Modern submarines of the Soryu class continue to enter service, a second Hyuga-class helicopter-carrying destroyer is being built, and new, more advanced destroyers are on the drawing board. Faced with an increasingly assertive Chinese surface and submarine threat in regional waters, Japan is working to increase its maritime-surveillance capabilities in the East China Sea and to strengthen its island-chain defenses.
Though Japan has ended its nine-year maritime-support mission refueling allied ships in the Indian Ocean, it is expanding its foreign presence in other ways and plans to open the first Japanese military base on foreign soil, in Djibouti, during 2011. The new base will enable the JMSDF to better assist with counterpiracy operations off the coast of Somalia.
Kazakhstan has plans for a future Caspian Sea flotilla of six modern ships, consisting of three 500- to 700-ton patrol craft and three smaller patrol boats intended to protect the nation’s maritime oil assets. While the patrol boats are to be built locally, it is likely that the larger vessels will be imported, perhaps from Russia, South Korea, or the Netherlands.
The relationship between North and South Korea has been fraught with increased tension, highlighted by incidents such as the sinking of the South Korean corvette Cheonan in March and the artillery shelling of a South Korean island in November. The Cheonan was raised and the sinking investigated by a team of international experts, who uncovered evidence that a North Korean torpedo was, indeed, responsible. Unconfirmed reports surfaced late in 2010 that the North may now have developed nuclear-armed naval mines and could be in the process of developing nuclear-armed torpedoes. The U.S. Department of Defense predicts that by 2020 North Korea will be able to launch nuclear-armed ballistic missiles, further complicating the situation.
As South Korea’s navy looks ahead, it is reviewing security requirements and working to increase maritime-domain awareness and antisubmarine capability while boosting cooperation with the United States. In spite of local tensions, the government remains committed to international maritime efforts, including the fight against piracy off the Somali coast.
A new frigate, dubbed FFX, is in the works to replace some of the older Ulsan-class ships as well as other corvette-size vessels. The KDX-2X destroyer program is also under development, calling for six new air-defense destroyers. The navy has received three Type 214 submarines to date and plans to expand the fleet by adding six new boats, as well as eventually developing a domestically designed and produced submarine under the new KSS-3 program. South Korea also plans to replace its Lynx helicopters with more modern rotary-wing aircraft, and it received the first of eight newly refurbished P-3 Orion maritime-patrol aircraft from the United States in February 2010.
Malaysia’s naval and air forces are increasing cooperation to help protect national interests in the South China Sea. There is a growing requirement for increased maritime patrol-and-surveillance capabilities and expansion of the surface fleet to replace vessels transferred to other agencies. The sixth MEKO-100 RNM-class patrol ship is due for completion by 2011, and the navy is looking to build additional units of the class. A multi-purpose support ship with amphibious assault and humanitarian applications is also under development. Malaysia received its first of two Scorpène-class submarines in September 2009, but sea trials uncovered some problems that temporarily prevented the boat from diving safely. By mid-2010, the submarine was actively taking part in naval exercises with the fleet, and the second and final unit arrived in Malaysia last summer.
New Zealand hopes to emphasize cost efficiency as it plans for the future. The navy’s Project Protector ships have been delivered, but attention has refocused on the hull modifications required for the fleet’s offshore-patrol vessels. Near- and mid-term requirements include several smaller, shorter-legged maritime patrol aircraft, replacement of the replenishment ship Endeavour, and upgrade or replacement for the navy’s SH-2G Seasprite helicopters. Acquisition of a new vessel to fulfill supplemental diving, mine countermeasures, and hydrographic-research duties is also planned. New Zealand recently completed modernization of its two Anzac-class frigates under phase one of the navy’s Platform Systems Upgrade (PSU) program. Further upgrade-phases are planned for the future.
In June 2010 the frigate Te Kaha made a rare visit to Seattle, Washington, marking the first time a ship from the Royal New Zealand Navy docked in the continental United States since 1985. Warship visits between the two nations remain extremely rare, since New Zealand requires all vessels entering its waters to announce if they are carrying nuclear weapons, in compliance with the nation’s nuclear-free zone legislation.
Pakistan received its second and third F-22P frigates from China in 2010, and the navy is looking to replace its aging Agosta-class submarines that entered service more than 30 years ago. Pakistan plans to fit at least two of its three Agosta 90B–class submarines with the French MEMSA air-independent propulsion system and has begun talks to acquire three to four additional submarines from China, Germany, or another source. Pakistan’s fragile relationship with the United States paid a number of dividends for the navy in 2010 as two P-3C Orions were transferred, with plans for six more to arrive by 2012. Additional Harpoon antiship missiles were also ordered, and on 31 August the Oliver Hazard Perry–class frigate USS McInerney (FFG-8) was decommissioned from U.S. Navy service and transferred to the Pakistani fleet, where she was renamed the PNS Alamgir. Pakistan’s navy also acquired its first sail-training vessel in 2010.
Singapore’s navy faces a rapidly proliferating submarine presence in the region, and as a result is likely to invest more heavily to boost antisubmarine capabilities. The second of two Västergötland-class submarines was relaunched in Sweden last October, and the two air-independent-propulsion–capable submarines, renamed the Swordsman and Archer, will add significantly to naval capability when they enter Singapore’s fleet during the coming year.
Taiwan’s navy is aging rapidly and in need of modernization. Domestic production capabilities are struggling to keep up with technological demand, but often fall short. The navy commissioned a squadron of new locally built stealthy patrol boats in 2010, and 30 are planned for service by 2012. Ties with the United States remain important, and secondhand Osprey-class mine-hunting vessels are among the few units that are likely to be transferred in the near future. A new class of domestically designed mine-countermeasures ships is also planned for service.
On 1 February 2010 Taiwan retired its oldest amphibious-landing craft from service. The Chung Hai originally had entered U.S. Navy service in 1944 as LST-755. The vessel was transferred to China in 1946 and later formed an important element of Taiwan’s amphibious-assault fleet, remaining in service for more than 60 years.
Thailand’s navy has had a long-standing requirement for submarines, though funding remains a significant hurdle. South Korean–built, German-designed Type 209 submarines top the list of likely choices, but those from France, Russia, and China are also being considered. A 90-meter offshore patrol boat is being built domestically to a BAE design and the vessel is due to enter service in 2012. A second ship of the class is planned as well. A new Thai-built amphibious ship is planned for delivery in 2012; the vessel is similar in concept and design to Singapore’s Endurance class.
Vietnam is taking steps to strengthen alliances and build regional defense ties while modernizing the fleet to protect its 2,100-mile coastline. Up to six Kilo-class submarines are now planned, and additional Svetlyak-class patrol craft are expected for delivery from Russia, along with two Gepard-class frigates. Vietnam has also been working with Russia to help modernize its outdated naval infrastructure, including shipbuilding facilities and maintenance assets to support the growing navy.
In May 2010 the Vietnamese navy purchased six DHC-6 Twin Otter Series 400 aircraft for maritime patrol, transport, and support operations. The sale marks the first acquisition of Western-built aircraft by the Vietnamese navy and also the formation of Vietnam’s first fixed-wing naval aviation unit. Delivery of the aircraft will take place between 2012 and 2014.
Europe
Bulgaria faces significant military cuts, with force-structure reductions targeted for 20 percent by 2015. The navy’s share of shortfalls is likely to be far less than that of its sister services. Naval leadership had expressed a strong interest in acquiring new corvettes under the French Gowind program, but fiscal realities have halted acquisition, as least temporarily.
Denmark remains active in international operations, and its Absalon-class flexible support ships continue to prove their worth in support of such missions. Denmark recently acquired two new Knud Rasmussen–class Arctic patrol vessels for use in conducting operations around Greenland. The new 1,700-ton, 51-meter ships entered service in 2008 and 2009 and will be joined by a third ship in the near future.
Finland’s navy is working to find a balance between international maritime cooperation and defense of its homeland, which remains the fleet’s top priority. The minelayer Pohjanmaa is currently taking part in a six-month counterpiracy operation in the Gulf of Aden, said to be the longest operational deployment ever by a Finnish warship. The Finns hosted Northern Coast, the largest maritime exercise ever held in their home waters, during September 2010; 50 ships from more than ten nations took part.
Four Rauma-class guided-missile patrol craft are scheduled to complete modernization in 2013 and rejoin the fleet in 2014. Three new mine-countermeasures vessels are also planned, and the second unit of the class launched in 2010 for service entry in 2011.
France’s defense cuts have brought closer ties with the United Kingdom, as the two countries reached an agreement during the past year to increase carrier interoperability. Despite mechanical difficulties, the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle remained active in 2010, supporting NATO troops off Afghanistan and contributing to antipiracy operations off the Horn of Africa. Plans for a second aircraft carrier under the PA 2 program are unlikely to be finalized by the government until late 2011 at the earliest.
The French surface fleet received its second and final Forbin-class guided-missile destroyer in December 2009. Its first Aquitaine-class frigate, built under the FREMM program, was launched in 2010 and is due for delivery in 2012. Current plans call for construction of nine antisubmarine and two air-defense variants of the Aquitaine class for French service.
Sea trials of the third Mistral-class amphibious assault ship are currently planned for 2011 with service entry in 2012. A fourth unit is eventually planned as well. French shipbuilder DCNS has made a unique deal allowing for operational use of its privately funded offshore patrol vessel by the navy under a three-year testing program. The deal allows the navy to test out the 1,100-ton ship Hermes beginning in 2011 while affording the company the opportunity to show the ship off for marketing purposes.
Four different families of ships are available for sale under the Gowind program. The BATISMAR offshore-patrol-vessel program remains in its infancy, but could eventually see ten new 1,500-ton patrol vessels enter service beginning around 2017.
The nuclear-powered ballistic-missile submarine Le Terrible test-fired the new M-51 submarine-launched ballistic missile; she is the first boat to carry the weapon, which entered service in 2010. All four submarines of the Le Triomphant class are to receive the missile, replacing the older M-45 variants.
The last Super Frelon helicopters, in service for more than 40 years, were retired in 2010, making room for more modern NH-90 helicopters as replacements. Additional Rafael carrier-based fighters are likely to be purchased by 2014, and plans to upgrade the Atlantique Mk 2 maritime patrol aircraft are also on the drawing board. A new version of the Exocet antiship missile, the MM40 Block III, was tested in its first shipboard firing last year. The new missiles more than double the range and provide the ability to target both ships and fixed coastal targets.
Germany’s navy has made a number of cuts to keep the budget under control, including retirement of its six remaining Type 206A submarines. The fleet has been left with a far smaller force of more advanced Type 212A submarines. Four type 212s are currently in service with two additional units due for delivery by 2013. Plans for ten Small Waterplane Area Twin Hull (SWATH) mine-countermeasures vessels were also canceled, and in June 2010 Germany retired its final Breguet Atlantic Mk 1 maritime patrol aircraft from service, having replaced them with P-3C Orions purchased from the Netherlands beginning in 2005.
The first units of the Braunschweig class (Type 130) corvette program underwent sea trials in 2010, and despite some delays are expected to be operational by the end of 2011. Four F-125 frigates are on order to replace the Bremen class currently in service. The F-125 ships were designed for operations in a post-9/11 environment and will emphasize 21st-century support operations rather than typical blue-water warfighting capabilities when they begin entering service around 2016. The K-131 class of corvettes is designed to replace the Type 143A (Gepard-class) guided-missile patrol craft, but work is progressing slowly because of budget shortages.
The Type 760 ammunition ship Westerwald, in service since 1967, was retired in 2010. A third Berlin-class replenishment ship is under construction and due for delivery by the end of 2012. A new class of double-hulled replenishment vessels is planned for service from around 2017.
Greece’s financial crisis has helped destabilize an already unpredictable defense-budget process. The navy’s planned purchase of six frigates under the FREMM program is unlikely in the short term, while seven new Super Vita–class guided-missile patrol craft are still expected, with the final unit due to be delivered by 2013. Two of the fleet’s Pomornik (Zubr)-class hovercraft were inactivated as a cost-saving measure, while the Elli-class frigate-upgrade program, which began in 2003, was completed by the end of 2010.
Greece has finally accepted delivery of the German-built submarine Papanikolis, its first Type 214 boat. The move reverses the controversial Greek decision to accept only domestically produced submarines of the class. In addition to the Papanikolis, three sister submarines are being built in Greece for delivery by 2013, and two additional units of the class have been ordered for service around 2018. The planned Type 209 submarine upgrades will not, however, take place, and older units are likely to be retired as new Type 214 boats enter service.
Italy’s first frigate under the FREMM program, the Carlo Bergamini, is currently under construction and expected to enter service in 2013 with a launch scheduled for 2011; up to ten units of the class are planned. Two new 170-meter, 18,000-ton amphibious assault ships and four new mechanized landing craft are also on the books. Two of the Navy’s Type 212 submarines have joined the fleet, and two additional units are being built for delivery between 2013–2014. Current plans call for acquisition of the F-35B short-takeoff-and-vertical-landing (STOVL) joint-strike fighter to replace the AV-8B Harrier operating from Italy’s two aircraft carriers, the 14,000-ton Giuseppe Garibaldi and the 30,000-ton Cavour, the later of which played an important role during Haiti earthquake-relief operations in early 2010.
Latvia has five new 25-meter SWATH patrol boats on order from Germany. The vessels are planned for local-economic-exclusion control and general patrol-and-surveillance duties beginning in 2011.
Lithuania received its third and final Flyvfisken (Stanflex 300)–class patrol craft from Denmark early in 2010. The navy is also acquiring two new Hunt-class mine-countermeasures vessels from the United Kingdom in 2011.
The Netherlands christened and launched HNLMS Holland in February 2010, the first of four new offshore-patrol vessels that will be in Dutch service by 2013. The Dutch navy meanwhile is awaiting delivery of its largest-ever vessel, the 28,000-ton joint-support ship Zuiderkruis, planned to commission in 2015. A Dutch Walrus-class submarine began taking part in counterpiracy patrols off the east coast of Africa during fall 2010. The deployment to assist (among other things) with monitoring communications between pirate vessels and their shore-based Somali warlords came at the request of NATO leadership.
Norway continues to place an emphasis on modernization while keeping a cautious eye on the Arctic waters of the “High North.” The navy is strengthening its submarine capabilities and has repositioned a floating wharf to Ramsund on the northern coast for use servicing Ula-class submarines and recharging their batteries during Arctic patrols. The submarine fleet is also working to increase interoperability, and last September the submarine Utvaer sailed into Norfolk, Virginia, taking part in antisubmarine training operations with a number of other naval assets, marking the first time a Norwegian submarine has visited a U.S. port.
Norway’s fifth and final Aegis guided-missile frigate, the Thor Heyerdahl, underwent sea trials during 2010 and was commissioned into service in January 2011. The fleet also received the first two Skjold-class air-cushion guided-missile patrol craft, with four remaining ships planned for delivery by the end of 2011. A number of older Hauk-class patrol craft also have been placed up for sale to foreign buyers.
Poland remains a dedicated and very active member of NATO, despite tight budgets. Work has been painstakingly slow on the MEKO-A-100-class corvette program since construction began in 2001. The first ship was launched in 2009 and at the current pace of work, is not expected to enter service until 2015 at the earliest. Nonetheless, Poland is looking to modernize as much of its capabilities as is fiscally possible, and hopes to acquire the Norwegian naval-strike missile for integration with coastal-defense batteries.
Portugal received the former Dutch frigate Van Galen in early 2010 and renamed her the Dom Francisco de Almeida. Portugal also acquired five P-3C Orion maritime patrol aircraft from the Netherlands, the first of which completed modernization in 2010. The Tridente, the first of two new German-built Type 209PN air-independent-propulsion-capable submarines, was handed over last year. A second unit of the class, the Arpão, is to commission in 2011, replacing the aging French Daphné-class submarines in service.
Russia continues to view the Arctic as a vital element of its 21st-century strategy, and expanded activities are expected in the region. A shortage of icebreakers is to be corrected with a new class of nuclear-powered double-hulled ships to begin entering service in the 2015.
The country’s new military doctrine allows for first use of nuclear weapons when conventional forces threaten existence of the Russian state and also highlights NATO growth as a primary threat to Russian national security. Russia is working hard to maintain its defense industrial base and to modernize its high-technology sector, but results have been mixed at best. The Russian military was regrouped into four new unified commands by the end of 2010, replacing the previous organizational structure. Naval leadership breathed a collective sigh of relief last year as the Ukraine agreed to extend the Russian lease on its Crimean naval base at Sevastopol through at least 2042. Previously, the base deal had been set to expire in 2017.
The Northern Fleet flagship Petr Velikiy set sail in March 2010 to form the vanguard of an around-the-world fleet exercise, and Russian media reports indicated that efforts to rehabilitate, modernize, and reactivate the third unit of the Kirov-class nuclear-powered guided-missile cruiser have begun in earnest. Long inactive and tied up at her pier, the Admiral Nakhimov (ex-Kalinin) is perhaps unrealistically set for reactivation in 2012.
On 20 June 2010 the Russian Slava-class guided-missile cruiser Varyag arrived in San Francisco on a historic visit that coincided with the first official visit of Russian President Dmitry Medvedev to the United States.
Russia is working on modernizing a core group of major surface combatants by 2020. Though the revitalization of Cold War assets is impressive, design work on new surface ships has progressed far less smoothly because of a lack of both expertise and funding. This has resulted in the Russian decision to acquire Mistral-class amphibious-assault ships from France, and current plans call for two Mistrals to be built in France while two additional units may eventually be purchased for construction in Russia. Despite protests from the Russian shipbuilding industry, it appears that the rapid and affordable acquisition of new amphibious-assault ships was simply too important to risk assigning to domestic shipbuilders.
The Yuri Dolgoruky, the first Borey-class (Project 955) nuclear-powered ballistic-missile submarine, underwent sea trials last summer but is likely to face additional delays from problems with the Bulava submarine-launched ballistic missile. The Bulava diffculties have been at least partially blamed on supply shortages of missile parts within the industrial base. The Severodvinsk, first of Russia’s new Project 885 nuclear-powered attack submarines, has been under construction since 1993 but could enter service as early as 2011.
Russia plans to have a new training center open for carrier-based pilots by late 2012, but the facility is not expected to be fully operational until 2020. Construction of a 60,000-ton aircraft carrier is planned to begin in 2015 with delivery optimistically charted for 2020.
Spain continues to play an important role in international operations, sending forces to conduct antipiracy operations off the coast of Africa and deploying the 13,000-ton dock landing ship Castilla with hundreds of personnel to assist the Haitian earthquake victims in 2010.
The fifth Spanish Álvaro de Bazán–class guided-missile frigate is currently being built at Navantia and work continues on four Meteoro-class offshore-patrol boats under the Buques de Acción Maritima (BAM) program. A second batch of BAM ships is expected, despite funding shortages. A new F-110 frigate program is also on the drawing board to replace Spain’s U.S. Perry-class frigates beginning in the 2020s. Four new air-independent-propulsion–capable S-80A submarines are due to enter service between 2013 and 2016. The class will replace the French Agosta-class submarines now in service.
Spain’s 27,000-ton strategic-projection ship Juan Carlos I was delivered late in 2010; she is able to transport some 900 troops while operating helicopters, fixed-wing STOVL fighters, and landing craft. The navy’s 17,000-ton aircraft carrier Principe de Asturias conducted sea trials last year after completion of a minor modernization and is likely to remain in service through at least 2020. Spain may purchase the expensive F-35B STOVL variant of the joint-strike fighter, because it remains the only viable option to replace the country’s AV-8B Harriers once they reach the end of their service lives around 2020.
At least two of Sweden’s Visby-class guided-missile patrol combatants have been modified to allow for operations in warmer climates in support of international operations. They conducted trials during 2010 prior to achieving full operational capability. A new submarine program is kicking off to replace the current-generation of Gotland-class boats. The new submarine program, dubbed A26, is not expected to reach fruition until at least 2018.
Turkey is working to boost its domestic shipbuilding capabilities while expanding on the ambitious eight-ship MILGEM national corvette program. First of the class, the Heybeliada, underwent sea trials during 2010 and is due to commission in 2011. Up to four new 4,600-ton air-defense frigates are planned under the new TF-2000 program, with deliveries slated to begin around 2020. Turkey is looking to acquire a new 15,000-ton amphibious-assault ship in the future to transport and support a battalion-sized fighting force. The Turkish submarine fleet has plans for six new Type 214TN submarines and hopes to complete a high percentage of the construction domestically.
The United Kingdom’s Royal Navy was once the world’s mightiest fleet, but it is now reeling from recent defense cuts announced in October 2010 as part of the Strategic Defense and Security Review. These cuts included termination of the UK’s maritime-patrol aircraft capability through cancellation of the MRA4 Nimrod program, as well as decommissioning HMS Ark Royal, the youngest of the Invincible-class small aircraft carriers, and retirement of all Harrier STOVL aircraft by 2011. The F-35B variant of the joint-strike fighter has also been canceled in favor of the conventional aircraft-carrier variant (F-35C). HMS Queen Elizabeth, first of the new class of large aircraft carriers, will not enter service until 2016. The new carrier, however, will only operate helicopters when commissioned, because the F-35s that would have been carried have been delayed until 2020. A second aircraft carrier, the Prince of Wales, is now expected to enter service in 2019 and will be fitted with catapults and arresting gear to allow for interoperability with allied naval aircraft. It is doubtful the Royal Navy will be able to afford both carriers at the same time, so the Queen Elizabeth may be mothballed when the newer Prince of Wales enters service. The Royal Navy and the French Navy are planning to increase cooperation in the decades to come to ensure that at least one future aircraft carrier is always available between the two nations in the event of an emergency.
The British surface fleet will see a reduction from 23 to 19 destroyers and frigates. The follow-on Future Surface Combatant (FSC) program is still early in the developmental stage, but an antisubmarine-warfare/precision-strike variant is expected to replace the Cornwall- and Duke-class general-purpose frigates starting around 2020. At least eight 3,000-ton offshore-patrol vessels are also planned under the FSC effort. Four of the six Daring (Type 45)–class air-defense destroyers are planned to be in service by the end of 2011 with the remaining two units due to commission by 2013. The ships’ Sea Viper air-defense system (previously known as PAAMs) conducted its first live test launch from a destroyer, and the navy is now looking into possible development of the class’ ballistic-missile-defense capabilities.
HMS Astute, the first of a new class of nuclear-powered attack submarines, was commissioned in August 2010. The boat suffered an embarrassing and expensive setback, however, when she ran aground in October. A total of seven Astute-class submarines are to be built, and the decision has also been made to keep an independent British nuclear deterrent; thus, the UK’s Trident submarines and their follow-on program are likely to remain funded.
Ukraine is now rebuilding military ties with Russia, and as part of a dramatic policy reversal has extended Russia’s lease on the naval base at Sevastopol through at least 2042. Even with a projected increase in defense spending, budgets are likely to remain tight, and the plan to build ten new corvettes domestically has been delayed, with the final ship not due to enter service until 2030.
Middle East/Africa
Algeria’s enthusiasm to purchase as many as six ships under the Franco-Italian FREMM frigate program apparently has waned in the face of budget realities, but the navy received two improved Kilo-class (Project 636) submarines from Russia in 2010. New French-built FPB-98–class boats continue to enter service, and at least 21 of the 100-ton vessels are now planned. Two Algerian Koni-class frigates and two Nanuchka-II–class guided-missile patrol craft have also recently been overhauled in Russia.
Egypt’s first new high-speed guided-missile patrol craft was laid down at a ceremony in April 2010 at Pascagoula, Mississippi, where the vessels are being built. Prior to the unfolding political events in Egypt, delivery of the ship was planned for 2012, and three additional units are on order, each of which will be armed with a 76-mm gun, Harpoon and Rolling Airframe missiles, and a Phalanx close-in weapon system.
Iran is growing increasingly frustrated in the face of international sanctions resulting from its ongoing nuclear program. As the nation looks to China and away from Russia, the Iranian defense industry has managed to copy a number of Chinese missiles. The Nasr-1 antiship missile, developed from the Chinese C-704, is likely to be integrated aboard future fast-attack craft and coastal missile-defense batteries. During 2010 Iranian warships conducted a number of exercises around the Strait of Hormuz and the Iranian-built corvette Jamaran was launched under the Mowj project. The new corvette is based on the Saam (Vosper Mk 5)–class frigates and is called a destroyer by the Iranians. A second unit is under construction for delivery in 2013. Up to four new 120-ton Ghadir-class submarines have also entered Iranian naval service for coastal and shallow-water operations. In the long term, Iran hopes to one day build a larger 1,000-ton sub, though this is unlikely in the short term.
As Iraq takes over military responsibility from the United States, renewed emphasis has been placed on building up the Iraqi navy, which is now responsible for protection of local waters and the offshore oil terminals that bring in up to 85 percent of Iraq’s gross domestic product. To assist with those duties, the first of up to 15 American-built 35-meter coastal patrol vessels entered Iraqi service in September 2010.
Israel’s controversial naval raid on a Turkish protest/aid ship trying to run the Gaza Strip blockade brought relations between the two countries to a new low and was blamed on bad planning, failed intelligence-gathering, and lack of joint/interagency cooperation. Israel’s navy continues to face challenges patrolling regional waters rife with arms smugglers. As a result, the use of unmanned surface vessels such as the Protector system is likely to grow for coastal patrol, port protection, and blockade enforcement. The German MEKO-100 corvette design is now being studied in place of the U.S. littoral combat ship, which proved too expensive for the navy’s budget. During the past few years the Israeli Dolphin-class submarine program has taken on a growing importance, and two new submarines, air-independent-propulsion variants of the class, are planned for service by 2013. Israel’s desire to strengthen its amphibious force has resulted in the acquisition of new 25-meter tank landing craft.
Kenya remains a key player in counterpiracy operations, and its government is working to establish a security corridor intended to protect ships en route to Mombasa. Despite extensive funding from the United States and European Union, Kenya has complained that the prosecution of so many pirates is overwhelming its justice system. This has resulted in fewer cases being accepted by Kenyan courts, as additional funding is required from the West to ease Kenyan concerns.
Morocco has ordered one frigate under the FREMM program and plans to increase defense spending as its military attempts to modernize. Four 70-meter offshore-patrol vessels are being built, with delivery planned by 2013.
Nigeria is working to improve training that will enable more effective counterinsurgency and antipiracy operations to better protect its oil-producing regions. Several new patrol boats are on order, including Manta boats from Suncraft. Defender-class boats from the United States have also strengthened maritime capabilities along with two 25-meter Israeli Shaldag craft, the first of which entered service in 2010. Work is ongoing to rebuild some of the nation’s maritime infrastructure, including dockyard facilities.
Oman’s Project Khareef corvette program is nearing completion, with the second of three units launched in 2010 and a third unit to follow during 2011. The navy also aims to buy four 75-meter, helicopter-capable offshore-patrol vessels under the Al-Ofouq program.
Saudi Arabia has the largest military budget in the Middle East, but its domestic production capacity lags significantly behind military requirements. As a result, the nation has begun looking to India and others outside its typical markets to diversify the supply base. The Saudi navy is initiating a program to purchase eight warships, and ballistic-missile defense capabilities are one consideration. The country is also looking to purchase additional maritime patrol aircraft and may acquire P-8 Poseidons from the United States.
Leaders of Somalia’s administrative regions are seeking to establish and expand the fledgling coast guard. Foreign counterpiracy patrol efforts are having a significant impact in the immediate patrol zones, but as successful hijackings are deterred off the Somali coast and Gulf of Aden, the pirates are learning to move farther east, away from protected coastal corridors and well into the Indian Ocean, creating new challenges to the world’s maritime trade.
South Africa’s military faces extensive budget cuts, but the navy’s funding position is far better than that of its sister services. A number of new acquisition efforts are under way, including new patrol vessels under the Biro and Xena projects, strategic-support and sealift vessels under Project Millennium, and a new survey vessel under Project Hotel. New mine-countermeasures systems are slated as well.
The United Arab Emirates’ first Bayunah-class corvette began sea trials during 2010 and is expected in service later this year. Five additional units are planned, as are 34 new interceptor craft built to a 16-meter Turkish design.
Yemen’s military now offers to contract out its naval forces for counterpiracy protection in local waters. The demand appears to be so great that Yemen reportedly rejects over half the for-cost protection requests it receives. The United States and European Union are funding other Yemeni antipiracy and counterterrorist efforts through the donation of small craft, including an 87-foot Marine Protector vessel, and increased training opportunities.
Americas
Argentina’s naval budget was raised last year, allowing for an increase in sailing days and the acquisition of new equipment. Up to five 80-meter offshore-patrol boats are planned for maritime and fisheries patrol, interception, oceanographic survey, pollution control, and search-and-rescue duties. The first are expected to begin entering service in 2013 with new units delivered every six to ten months thereafter.
Brazil’s fleet-renewal and modernization plans remain ambitious. At least five 6,000-ton frigates are planned, and five offshore-patrol vessels are to be built domestically beginning around 2012. A large new logistics-support ship is on the drawing board as well. New Amazon River hovercraft may be purchased, and river-patrol boats continue to enter service as part of the NAPA 500 project, with the first of a new batch planned for delivery in 2012. New C-295 aircraft are on order for transport and maritime-patrol duties, and the first EC-725 helicopter has been delivered, with 16 ultimately expected for naval service. Upgrades to the aircraft carrier São Paulo are also nearing completion.
Brazil’s first nuclear-powered attack submarine is under development, and up to six units are planned. The submarine is likely to be based on the conventionally powered Scorpène and Barracuda submarine designs, because France will provide hull construction and electronics expertise for the program. The submarine’s nuclear reactor will be designed and built domestically in Brazil. A land-based reactor prototype is to be ready by 2014, and the final reactor is expected to be complete and ready for installation by 2019. Four modified versions of the non-nuclear Scorpène-class are also on order for Brazil with delivery expected to take place btween 2017 and 2021.
Canada’s navy celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2010, and a new National Shipbuilding Procurement Strategy will likely bring improved stability and predictability to the naval planning process. Topping Canadian naval priorities are replacements for the Iroquois-class destroyers, reanimation of the Joint Support Ship program, modernization of the Halifax-class frigates by 2017, and construction of new Arctic offshore-patrol ships beginning in 2015.
Extended dock work on Canada’s submarine fleet is in the works, with all four units to complete battery upgrades and weapons and engineering improvements during the next few years. Canada remains interested in the U.S. P-8 Poseidon maritime patrol aircraft as a possible replacement for its CP-140 Auroras, and new CH-148 maritime helicopters are also now beginning to enter service, relieving the aging Sea Kings.
Chile welcomed its largest naval vessel into the fleet last year, as the 42,000-ton logistics-support ship Almirante Montt, a retired U.S. Navy Henry J. Kaiser–class replenishment oiler, was commissioned into service replacing the Danish-built oiler Araucano. Two of Chile’s 80-meter offshore-patrol vessels have been delivered, and up to three additional units may eventually enter service. As the marine corps increases in strength from roughly 3,000 to 5,000 personnel, there has been talk of acquiring two amphibious ships, one of which is desired for service by 2012.
Colombia’s navy continues to combat insurgents, guerrillas, and narco-terrorists. Riverine operations remain important, and the government is working to pool its federal police and military assets to maximize their combined capabilities. Four 80-meter offshore-patrol vessels are planned, with the first unit launched in 2010 and a second to follow in 2012. New 40-meter coastal patrol craft are due to begin entering service later this year, and CN-235 maritime patrol aircraft also have recently been delivered.
Honduras recently opened a northeastern naval base housing an operations center with newly constructed patrol-boat piers. Four new 13-meter interdiction boats were transferred from the U.S. in 2010.
Mexico’s marine corps is expanding to 44 battalions by 2012 and will take delivery of hundreds of new ground vehicles. Naval priorities include establishment of small search-and-rescue bases around the country as well as construction of several larger multi-purpose naval stations. A total of six Oaxaca-class offshore-patrol vessels are slated, with two in commission, two under construction, and two more planned. Panther helicopters are being acquired for service on board the ships. A sizable number of new patrol and interceptor craft also are joining the fleet to boost inshore operations, and a new logistics-support ship is being eyed for the future.
Panama is working to modernize its self-defense capabilities, and the government has been able to use seized drug money to pay for the construction of new coast guard stations. Current plans also call for the acquisition of new helicopters and interceptor fast-attack craft.
Peru’s navy is acquiring secondhand Fokker 60 maritime patrol aircraft from the Netherlands and Sea King helicopters from the United States. The country’s submarine fleet celebrates its centennial in 2011 and propulsion, electronics, and torpedo-system upgrades are on tap. The force has been increasingly active, taking part in a number of antisubmarine exercises with the U.S. Navy. New river-patrol boats are entering the fleet for service on the Amazon, and the fleet’s Italian-made Lupo-class frigates will be undergoing modernization through 2013.
Trinidad and Tobago’s coast guard, which had intended to take delivery of three offshore-patrol vessels from Britain’s BAE Systems, has canceled the program because of delays and overruns. The OPVs, which were ordered in 2007, had been expected to play a major role in exclusive-economic-zone management, as well as maritime law enforcement and special-operations missions in the region.
The United States Navy’s newest aircraft carrier, the USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN-78), is due to commission in 2015 and will feature a number of innovations, including the Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS). In December 2010 EMALS conducted its first manned test, launching an F/A-18E Super Hornet. The Navy’s oldest carrier, the Enterprise (CVN-65), is set for retirement in 2012, and the 11-carrier force will drop to 10 ships until the Gerald R. Ford commissions three years later.
The Arleigh Burke–class guided-missile destroyers are continuously evolving, and 18 of them already have been, or soon will be, upgraded for ballistic-missile-defense duties. Production of the new Flight III version of the destroyer is to begin in 2016. The first of three Zumwalt-class warships is expected for delivery in 2013. The Ticonderoga-class cruiser modernization effort is in full swing, and five of the cruisers have been armed with Standard SM-3 surface-to-air missiles, allowing them to operate in the ballistic-missile-defense role. Fifty-five littoral combat ships (LCS) are planned, and in late 2010 the Navy decided to divide the next wave of construction, with rival shipyards to build ten Freedom-class and ten Independence-class units.
The America (LHA-6) is the next large-deck amphibious ship planned for service, with delivery scheduled for 2013. The ship, and sister hull LHA-7, will not have stern docking wells, relying instead on expanded aviation capabilities. Future LHAs may be redesigned with a docking well rather than the aviation emphasis placed on the first two units of the class. Reliability problems continue to plague the San Antonio–class dock landing ships. Five units have now been commissioned, and last year the Navy announced plans to name the tenth ship in honor of the controversial late Pennsylvania Congressman John P. Murtha.
At least 23 of the new Fortitude-class joint high-speed vessels are planned for service with the Navy, while the Army is expected to acquire a minimum of ten additional units. The first ship of the class is to enter Army service in 2012, and the second ship, the Vigilant, will begin serving with the Navy’s Military Sealift Command in 2013.
The Navy has begun planning for a follow-on nuclear-powered ballistic-missile submarine to replace the Ohio-class SSBNs. The new program, SSBNX, calls for 12 submarines to begin construction around 2019, fully replacing the Ohio class around 2039. The Los Angeles (SSN-688), namesake of the venerable Los Angeles–class attack boats, was decommissioned in January 2011. Seven of the Navy’s Virginia-class nuclear-powered attack submarines are now in service with the most recent, the Missouri (SSN-780), commissioned in summer 2010. The eighth unit of the class, the California (SSN-775), was launched in November 2010 and is to begin sea trials during 2011. Up to 30 Virginia-class submarines are planned.
U.S. naval aviation assets include more than 3,700 operational aircraft, but a significant fighter gap is anticipated as older aircraft retire before new F-35 Lightning II joint-strike fighters arrive in service to replace them. The Marine Corps F-35B STOVL variant faces an uncertain future because of a series of technical and budgetary setbacks, while the Navy’s carrier-based F-35C is on track to reach initial operational capability by 2016. A total of 680 F-35Bs and F-35Cs are planned for service. One hundred fourteen EA-18G Growlers are scheduled to be built with the electronic-warfare aircraft eventually replacing the Navy’s EA-6B Prowler, due to retire around 2020. Initial production models of Navy’s E-2D airborne-early-warning-and-control aircraft are undergoing flight-testing; the E-2Ds are set to join the Fleet by 2015. One hundred seventeen P-8A Poseidon maritime-patrol and antisubmarine jets are due to begin entering service in 2013. MH-60R and S naval helicopters continue to enter service, and full-rate production of Marine Corps AH-1Z attack helicopter was approved in 2010. Efforts are under way to increase MV-22 Osprey readiness rates during future deployments, and plans call for an upgraded version of the heavy-lift CH-53 helicopter, known as the CH-53K, by 2018.
The U.S. Coast Guard Cutter Waesche (WMSL-751), the service’s second national-security cutter, was commissioned in March 2010. Eight of them are planned to replace the Hamilton-class high-endurance cutters. Twenty-five Coast Guard medium maritime-security cutters are eventually planned for service beginning around 2016, and the first of 58 new Sentinel fast-response cutters is due for delivery in 2011. The Coast Guard’s ubiquitous 25-foot Defender and 45-foot fast-response boats continue to enter service, and new HC-144 Ocean Sentry patrol planes are joining the service as well.
Venezuela has created a new naval militia force composed largely of lightly armed fishermen and private boat owners. The navy is now taking delivery of new Spanish-built 99-meter patrol ships, four of which are planned for service by the end of 2011. Venezuelan leader Hugo Chavez announced a massive 40-percent pay raise for military forces not long after a multi-billion-dollar arms deal was signed with Russia. Plans to purchase Kilo-class submarines from Russia appear to be on hold, however—at least temporarily.