The past year has brought a host of new global challenges forcing greater cooperation among world navies. The interesting paradox of this international collaboration is that despite such combined efforts, many regions of the world are engaged in aggressive border disputes and intense competition over natural resources and national sovereignty, resulting in veritable powder kegs threatening to detonate at any moment.
At the top of this list has been the international fight against maritime piracy. Though certainly not new, the piracy issue has only recently captured attention from the international press and, in turn, the world's military leaders. As a global fleet of warships sailed for the Horn of Africa intent on countering Somali pirates, these same international fleets patrolled the oceans of the world to prevent terrorist attacks, enforce international accords, and provide humanitarian assistance wherever most needed. It seems that former Commandant of the Marine Corps General Charles Krulak's prescient concept of the "Three-Block War"—in which forces must prepare to conduct peace enforcement duties, humanitarian missions, and full-scale combat operations on an often confusing block-by-block basis—has finally arrived in the maritime domain.
This review of the world's navies presents a snapshot of activities and developments during the past year. It is arranged by region, with nations discussed alphabetically under each subheading.
Australia and Asia
Australia's maritime forces witnessed some success stories this past year but continue to face significant hurdles. From an underwater perspective, there remains a considerable shortage of trained submariners to man its fleet of Collins-class submarines. News reports in early summer 2008 indicated that there were only 430 submariners available for service but there is a requirement for 670. The submarine force soldiers on, of course, and in mid-summer the submarine Waller became the first to launch a new MK 48 Mod 7 torpedo that was developed jointly by the Australian and U.S. navies. Looking beyond the current generation of Australian submarines will be the responsibility of a new program called "Sea 1000," which stood up this past fall to establish requirements for Australia's future submarine program. A new design concept is expected from the team by 2011.
The first unit of the Hobart class of Air Warfare Destroyers is due for delivery in 2014, and work on the project continues in earnest. At least three units of the class are planned, with the third unit to complete in 2017, and the option for a fourth may be exercised at a later date. The project is based on Spain's F-100 frigate design, and Australia's ships will also be equipped with the Aegis air-defense suite. The first two improved Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates re-entered Australian service in 2008, and they are by far the most advanced variants of the warship ever unveiled. The ship's SM-1 surface-to-air missiles have been replaced by SM-2s, and the vessels have been fitted with new sonar, decoys, and a vertical-launch system carrying Evolved Sea Sparrow Missiles. Two additional units will complete modernization by the end of 2009.
Two 28,000-ton Strategic Projection Ships are planned for delivery in 2012 and 2014. The ships are being built by Navantia and will be powered by LM2500 gas turbines. They will not, however, carry any SH-2G Super Seasprite helicopters because the trouble-plagued program was cancelled in March 2008. To enhance its antiship and patrol capabilities, the Royal Australian Navy may fit Penguin antiship missiles to 16 S-70B Seahawk helicopters and will no doubt benefit from sensor modernizations to the Air Force's fleet of AP-3C Orion maritime patrol aircraft that are to be upgraded by 2011.
In Cambodia, recent events and unrest have led to plans to double the defense budget in 2009. Though the vast majority will inevitably be spent on ground forces, its maritime contingent may well see a modest increase in spending.
As China's military power grows, its navy continues to flex its muscle in the Taiwan Strait with an increased naval presence there. In March 2008, the annual Report to Congress on the Military Power of the People's Republic of China was released by the U.S. Department of Defense. According to the report, officials estimate that the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) currently operates 74 principal combatants, 57 attack submarines, 55 medium and heavy amphibious ships, and 49 coastal missile-patrol craft. The report states that two Type 093 SSNs and one Type 094 SSBN may enter service in the near future. Ten Song-class (Type 039) conventionally powered submarines are already in service while newer Yuan-class boats are in full production and can be expected in service by 2010. The report also highlights that seven large surface warships have been built domestically since 2006, including two each of the Type 052C and Type 051C guided-missile destroyers and three Type 054A guided-missile frigates. Most recently, U.S. naval intelligence sources revealed that Chinese attack submarine patrols nearly doubled during 2008.
Once one of Russia's largest arms customers, China's imports of Russian weapons have dropped dramatically in recent years, and this trend is expected to continue. Domestically, China has been working to establish its own missile and electronics capabilities in addition to ship and submarine construction expertise. China State Shipbuilding Corporation, the largest supplier of warships to the PLAN, aims to be the world's largest shipbuilder by 2015. Other yards like the China Shipbuilding Industry Corporation can also build immense vessels but are more focused on the civilian market.
Though a new underground naval base in Hainan, China, for Type 093 and Type 094 nuclear-powered submarines was uncovered in April, the debate over a Chinese aircraft carrier continues to capture the most popular attention. The retired Russian carrier ex-Varyag, in Chinese hands for more then a decade, has been renamed Shilang and is apparently being readied as a training carrier, marking the long-rumored start to a Chinese carrier program. The date that full Chinese carrier operations might begin remains an international mystery, with some experts guessing near-term while others do not expect to see the Varyag ready until 2015 and a fully operational aircraft carrier around the 2025. Eventually, China may wind up with a force of four to six full-sized carriers carrying Su-33 or other modern combat aircraft.
India has stated that it intends to expand its fleet of 140 warships to roughly 185 by 2017, but this would seem an almost impossible dream. The nation is overly dependent on an often-unreliable Russian arms partner that fails to deliver promised items on time or within budget, leaving Indian maritime forces facing a generation of military gaps. In 2004 India purchased the retired Russian aircraft carrier Admiral Gorshkov for roughly $975 million. During 2008, after fortunes of Indian money had already been spent refitting the ship, Russia upped the ante, requesting an additional $1 to 2 billion to complete and hand over the carrier. If India failed to come up with the money there was concern that the Russian yard would halt work, canceling this and possibly other deals and contracts.
Faced with the prospect of losing its aircraft carrier capability, or paying the much higher price, India acquiesced and agreed to the price hike. Current plans now call for Russia to deliver the delayed Admiral Gorshkov around 2012, while India's active carrier Viraat will remain in service until then, perhaps as late as 2014. India is also building its own 37,000-ton aircraft carrier that is expected to enter service sometime between 2012 and 2015.
India's submarine fleet also faces a number of significant gaps as it begins looking to the West to overcome shortfalls stemming from its reliance on Russian arms. Between 2002 and 2006, India's submarine force reportedly had an operational capability of only 48 percent, far below stated goals. For a number of years Russia has planned to lease one or two Akula-class nuclear-powered attack submarines to help train Indian submariners as the nation builds its own domestic construction capability. In November, however, tragedy struck as the Russian submarine Nerpa was undergoing trials prior to being leased to India. A fire extinguishing system on board the vessel malfunctioned, killing 20 Russian members of the crew and injuring many others. Understandably, this has placed an indefinite hold on the boat's transfer.
India's diesel-powered Kilo-class submarines are being upgraded by Russia with the Klub antiship missile, but this program was also delayed as the missile system failed to hit targets when tested. The problems now seem to have been resolved and delivery of upgraded Kilos recommenced this past summer. India eagerly awaits delivery of six Scorp
ne-class submarines that will begin entering service around 2012-13 and hopes to purchase six air-independent-propulsion (AIP)-capable boats, along with a modest submarine rescue capability. India also recently announced that to assist with power-projection duties it intends to construct two domestically built amphibious dock landing ships with help from Singapore.Despite the many problems encountered throughout the naval acquisition process, India's operational fleet has been quite active this past year and has played an aggressive role in anti-piracy operations off the Horn of Africa, demonstrating that despite bureaucratic wrangling at home, when called on, vital parts of the fleet remain ready to deploy and able to perform their duties.
Indonesia is working to boost its coastal intelligence capability and is setting up coastal surveillance stations and radars along the Makassar Strait. The third Diponegoro-class corvette, Sultan Iskandar Muda, entered service late in 2008, and Indonesia's two Type-209 submarines are to be modernized in the near future. The nation is expected to order new submarines from Russia during the next several years.
In the fall, Japan's Ministry of Defense approved the deployment of female sailors to begin serving on board a number of Maritime Self-Defense Force warships starting in 2009. With roughly 45,000 personnel, Japan's maritime force contains only a token 2,000 female members, but as a result of this decision they will be permitted to serve on board select destroyers, minesweepers, and naval helicopters. Though expected to be a slow transition, the change in personnel rules may ease some JMSDF personnel shortages. The test ship for the integration of female sailors is expected to be the new 13,500-ton helicopter-carrying destroyer Hyuga. Planned for commissioning in March 2009, the Hyuga is being outfitted with separate male and female living quarters.
Though Japanese relations with China remain complex, a rare event took place in June that highlighted improving relations between the two nations as the JMSDF destroyer Sazanami became the first Japanese warship to visit China since the end of World War II.
Deliveries continued for Japan's Aegis destroyer program as the second improved Kongo class of DDGs was delivered early in the year and the final Oyashio-class submarine entered service. Construction also continues on new units of the Soryu, or Oyashi-follow-on, class of submarines, with five boats expected in service by 2012.
With deliveries of New Zealand's Project Protector ships, consisting of a large multi-role vessel, two offshore-patrol vessels, and four inshore-patrol vessels all but complete by 2008, problems began to arise on board the multi-role HMNZS Canterbury. The 8,000-ton vessel was built largely to commercial standards as a cost saving measure. Unfortunately, it was discovered that some of these measures inadvertently sacrificed safety and functionality, so the vessel will need some $13.3 million in enhancements to ensure safety and effectiveness. Naval aviation will also get a boost as eight NH-90 helicopters are expected to enter service in 2010.
Whether North Korea remains on America's list of state-sponsored terrorist nations is up to the new Obama administration, but it is unlikely that rhetoric from the isolated Asian nation will be toned down anytime soon. During 2008, North Korea again warned of renewed naval clashes if South Korea attempts to violate its territorial waters.
Singapore is becoming an important player in the fight against international maritime piracy as its naval forces continue to modernize and older units are retired from service. The last two of the six-strong Trident-class of frigates is to be delivered in 2009, and this past July one of the ships took part in RIMPAC exercises, successfully test-firing a Harpoon antiship missile. Six aging members of the Sea Wolf class of guided-missile patrol craft were retired, and two Västergötland-class submarines are due to join the fleet, transferring from Sweden in 2010. There is also early interest in cooperating with Sweden's next-generation follow-on submarine acquisition program.
Pakistan foresees major growth for its submarine force, and this fall its newest submarine, the Hamza, was commissioned. The sub is the third Agosta-90B-class boat to enter service with the Pakistani fleet. The French-designed, indigenously produced Hamza has been fitted with air-independent propulsion, and two earlier boats of the class, the Khalid and Saad, are to be retrofitted in the near future with the same system under a 2007 contract. Additional submarine orders are expected from Pakistan as the nuclear-armed nation looks to replace its Daphné class, the last of which was decommissioned in 2006. Eventually the nation hopes for as many as 14 submarines.
Pakistan is also awaiting delivery of its four F-22P frigates from China. The first of these is expected in 2009, and the remaining units will arrive by 2013. Four additional F-22P ships may be purchased at a later date.
South Korea hosted a long-planned five-day international fleet review in October 2008. One of the highlights of the event was the appearance of its newest and largest amphibious assault ship, the Dokdo, carrying some 2,000 dignitaries for the review. Commissioned in July 2007, the 18,860-ton (full load) amphibious ship has a stern docking well and a large flight deck capable of carrying ten helicopters. A second unit of the class, the Marado, is expected in service by 2010, and a third ship, built to a slightly modified design, will likely join the fleet by 2015.
The Sejong-Daewang, the first of South Korea's new KDX-III class destroyers, was commissioned on 22 December 2008. She is expected to conduct extensive sea trials this year before achieving full operational capability in 2010. The highly advanced, 10,000-ton (full load) destroyer, launched on 25 May 2007, was built by Hyundai Heavy Industries of Ulsan. At least two additional units of the class are also being built, with the second destroyer expected to join the fleet in 2010 and the third in 2011. An option for three others will likely be exercised.
The Sohn Won-Il, the first of South Korea's new German-designed, AIP-capable, Type 214 submarines, entered service in 2008. Two sisters are expected in service by 2010 and up to six additional units may be purchased for delivery by 2018. Planning is also well under way on the domestically designed KSS-III submarine program, the first of which is expected to join the fleet in 2021.
Sri Lanka's maritime forces faced many challenges during 2008. These included battles with the Tamil Tiger rebel group and a serious cyclone that hit the region late in the year. The cyclone damaged the fleet's northern headquarters and forced five attack craft aground.
Taiwan has had only very limited success in acquiring new arms from the West in recent years. Twelve P-3 Orion patrol aircraft along with upgrades to its fleet of E-2 Hawkeye airborne early-warning aircraft are the most likely in the short term. The transfer of two retired Osprey-class mine countermeasures vessels and deliveries of Harpoon Block II antiship missiles have all been reported as in the works. Plans for eight diesel-powered submarines continue to be stuck in the design phase, and all of the major decisions for arms sales from the United States have been passed along to the Obama administration.
In communist Vietnam the Ministry of Defense is working toward privatizing the defense industry by 2020 as the nation works toward increasing military self-reliance. Economic troubles, notably a 27 percent inflation rate during 2008, will likely cause delays as its ground and naval forces plan for the future. Among the largest of these projects is the recent order for two Gepard (Project 11661)-class frigates from Russia with an estimated delivery date of 2011.
Europe
On 5 October 2007, Belgium retired the Westdiep, its fourth and final Wielingen-class frigate. Two retired Karel Doorman-class frigates transferred from the Netherlands and subsequently renamed the Leopold I and Louise-Marie have now replaced the long-serving Wielingens in Belgian service.
Bulgaria, one of NATO's newest members, has been working to bulk up its maritime power in the Black Sea. The former founding member of the Warsaw Pact joined NATO in 2004 and ordered two Gowind-class corvettes from France this past year. Having added the 2,400-ton (full load) ex-Belgian frigate Wandelaar to its fleet in 2005, Bulgaria has now negotiated with Belgium to acquire the ex-Wielingen and ex-Westdiep, the two remaining units of the class. The ex-Westdiep recently completed refitting and has been renamed Gordi, departing Zeebrugge, Belgium, en route to Bulgaria this past August. A third unit of the class will likely be used as a source for spare parts. In addition to these three frigates, the retired Belgian Tripartite-class mine hunter Myosotis was also transferred to Bulgaria.
Denmark has become increasingly concerned with piracy and nautical terrorism as the Danish shipping corporation Moller-Maersk remains the largest container ship operator in the world and transports a sizable percentage of all maritime cargo. Faced with these and other threats, the Danish fleet has relied heavily on its new flexible support ships that have proven both useful and cost effective. On 23 April 2008 Denmark retired four patrol vessels assigned to its Naval Home Guard force. The craft included the 31-meter, 330-ton patrol craft Agdlak; the 26-meter, 155-ton Faro; and two 20-meter, 130-ton MHV-90-class patrol boats, the Hvidsten and sister Brigaden. The Home Guard warships perform general patrol, environmental patrol, and search-and-rescue operations along the Danish coast.
Estonia has now welcomed all three of its Sandown-class mine countermeasures vessels from the United Kingdom. The first was delivered in 2007, the second in 2008, and a final unit transferred in January 2009. Though significant cuts had been planned for the defense budget, these have been reversed in the wake of Russia's invasion of the former Soviet Republic of Georgia.
In recent months Finland has continued its quest for security, ever aware of its precarious position next to Russia. Throughout 2008 Finland debated joining NATO along with neighbor Sweden. Though defense budgets had shown signs of tightening, the Russian invasion of Georgia forced lawmakers to reconsider these military cuts, and by the end of the year there was talk of increasing the Finnish defense budget. Mid-year the navy ordered three new mine countermeasures craft from Italy with deliveries to start in 2010. One of the requirements for the new vessels is the ability to work seamlessly with NATO naval forces. Additional coastal patrol craft and even submarine procurement are also under consideration by Finnish leaders.
Early in 2008, France announced plans to establish a permanent naval base in the United Arab Emirates and return to the NATO military structure with full alliance membership. France has chosen to play a major role in the international fight against piracy, achieving a rare international victory in April when its forces captured suspected pirates involved in hijacking the 88-meter French luxury yacht Ponant and her crew.
One of the biggest topics among France's naval experts remains the debate over a second aircraft carrier to supplement the Charles de Gaulle. In December 2008 the nuclear-powered de Gaulle completed a refit and refueling that took her out of service for 15 months. During this period, French carrier-based pilots and their aircraft trained on board U.S. Navy aircraft carriers to hone the skills required of naval aviation. To avoid these extended gaps when the single French carrier is in the yard, there had been strong hope for a second, conventionally-powered carrier to be ordered in the near future. Budget cuts, however, have forced the French navy to cut 6,000 out of 50,000 personnel over the next eight years, and the decision to purchase a new carrier has been postponed until at least 2011. Proponents of nuclear power in France note that the delay has a silver lining because high fuel prices are forcing a renewed examination of alternative propulsion systems for the new warship.
Budget cuts have also had an impact on the French frigate fleet, where the planned purchase of 17 FREMM (Frégate Multi-Mission) frigates now appears to have been trimmed down to a far more conservative fleet of 11. The submarine community has, so far, fared better than other parts of the fleet and plans for the six-boat Barracuda-class nuclear-powered attack submarines have survived the budget ax. In January 2008 France retired the nuclear-powered ballistic-missile submarine L'Inflexible. The submarine entered service in 1985 and was the sole surviving member of the six-boat Le Redoutable-class of SSBNs. The Redoutables are being replaced by the far larger Le Triomphant class. Le Terrible, the fourth and final unit of the new class, is expected in service around 2010.
Georgia's navy and coast guard suffered heavy damage during Russia's August invasion of the country, and many Georgian ships were destroyed or damaged in the battle. Though most vessels were attacked pier-side in the port of Poti, some craft reportedly made an attempt to ward off the invasion forces, but were outclassed by Russia's powerful Black Sea Fleet. As efforts to rebuild Georgia's shattered navy begin, the purchase of two Gowind corvettes from France is considered a likely next step.
On 22 September 2008, the German navy commissioned its second Braunschweig (Type 130)-class corvette, the Magdeburg. The ship joined older sister Braunschweig in service, and the German fleet now looks to deliveries of three more Type 130 corvettes—the Erfurt, Oldenburg, and Ludwigshafen—that are to follow by the end of the decade. Additional warships of the class may be ordered in the future. At least four Type 125 corvettes are planned, and the first of these 6,800-ton (full load) vessels is planned for delivery in 2014. A third Berlin-class replenishment ship has been ordered and is to enter service in 2013. Undersea warfare remains a top priority for the German navy, and two enhanced and lengthened variants of the Type 212 submarine have been ordered and are due for delivery in 2012 and 2013.
Though Greece's third German-designed Type 214 submarine was launched in March 2008, the Hellenic Navy has been reluctant to accept even the first boat, having complained of stability problems while on the surface. The German shipbuilder, however, has certified the vessels to be in working order, so rumors abound that Greece's refusal to accept the boats may stem from a funding problem rather than a technical one. Though the Neptune II submarine upgrade program is under way to keep four Glavkos-class boats in service through 2020, there is talk that portions of the program may be phased out in favor of buying two new Type 209 submarines with AIP capabilities. In 2008 upgraded Combattante III-class patrol craft began returning to the fleet, and additional units are due back by 2009. The Hellenic Navy has also been examining the purchase of six new 6,000-ton frigates with deliveries of the class hoped for as early as 2013. Two new Super Vita-class guided-missile patrol craft were ordered in 2008 and are expected to join the fleet in 2012.
Italy's 28,000-ton aircraft carrier Cavour entered service in 2008 and full operational capability for the large vessel is expected in 2009. Italy launched its second of two Project Horizon guided-missile destroyers in October 2007. The 6,000-ton warship Caio Duilio was built by Italian shipbuilder Fincantieri and is expected in service by the end of the decade. The first of the class, the Andrea Doria, is now operational. The first of Italy's FREMM-class frigates, Carlo Bergamini, is to be commissioned in 2012. Three antisubmarine and one general-purpose variant of the class were ordered in 2008 and as many as ten of the class are planned. Changes to the air-defense system intended for Italy's FREMM frigates were announced late in 2008, and the surface-to-air missile systems on board the ships will now carry the longer-ranged Aster 30 rather than the previously planned Aster 15. Italy's second Type 212A-class submarine, the Scire, was commissioned in February 2008. Two additional submarines of the class have been ordered and are to enter service by 2016.
Latvia, which is working to establish a coastal sea-surveillance system, received a fourth retired mine countermeasures vessel from the Netherlands this fall with a fifth and final unit expected to transfer in mid-2009. Five new Small Waterplane Area Twin-Hull (SWATH) vessels are also being built for the navy and are expected to be commissioned between 2010-12. Cost cutting, however, may force the sale of two units for commercial services. In addition, the logistics vessel Varonis is being upgraded and converted into an environmental-protection and pollution-control ship.
Lithuania in 2008 received its first of three Flyvefisken-class (Stan Flex 300) patrol vessels from Denmark, and two additional units are planned for service entry in 2009. Two British Hunt-class minehunters are being transferred to Lithuania and are expected in service by 2011. These new British ships will be extensively modernized and outfitted with Type 2193 sonar systems allowing them to replace the aging German mine countermeasures vessels now in service. Late in 2008 the U.S. Congress also approved transfer of two Osprey-class minehunters to Lithuania.
The Netherlands is planning for its largest-ever warship, the 26,000-ton Joint Support Ship that will serve as a combination amphibious and logistics-support ship beginning in 2014. A contract for the vessel is expected in 2009. Four new offshore patrol ships ordered from Damen in 2007 will enter service between 2010 and 2012. Though the Royal Dutch Navy scrapped plans to add Tomahawk land-attack missiles to its vessels, the surface fleet nonetheless had a busy year and on 8 November, the Dutch air-defense frigate De Zeven Provinciën successfully launched two Harpoon antiship missiles during an exercise off the Virginia coast, marking the first time the Dutch navy launched multiple Harpoon missiles at a single target. In October, Royal Dutch Submarine HNLMS Walrus took part in eight days of training with U.S. and Dutch naval assets off Cape Cod.
Norway is making a renewed effort to enhance its military capabilities in what it calls the "high north" region bordering Russia and the Barents Sea and is also planning to establish an extensive sea-surveillance and water-monitoring system. The Norwegian Naval Modernization Program calls for a fleet of some 70 vessels, including light and heavy frigates, corvettes, guided-missile patrol boats, mine countermeasures vessels, and submarines as well as training and support ships. All five of the Aegis-equipped Fridtjof Nansen-class of guided-missile frigates will be in service by 2010 with three having joined the fleet by 2008. Six Skjold-class missile boats are planned by 2010, though budgetary challenges continue to plague the program. A number of other new vessels are also expected to join the fleet in the near future including a logistics ship and new coast guard and navy patrol boats.
Poland has taken on a growing role in NATO and the nation aims for an all-volunteer military force by 2010. The Polish defense budget was increased 8.8 percent for 2009 and this includes a 4.4 percent increase to the military procurement budget.
Portugal has transferred two of its older frigates to Uruguay and in 2009 is receiving two Karel Doorman-class frigates that were recently retired from the Netherlands. In 2008 the German shipyard HDW launched Tridente, the first of Portugal's new Type 209PN-class AIP-capable submarines.
Though Russia's oil and gas resources form a key source of income for the nation, high inflation rates are cutting into national coffers. Still, defense spending continues to rise and acquisition of new equipment has taken on a very high-priority. Current plans call for arms procurement funding to rise from roughly 40 percent to 70 percent of the defense budget by 2015, with submarines remaining high priority items on the naval shopping list.
Sea trials began in December for the first new Borey-class nuclear-powered ballistic-missile submarine. The reactor was reportedly turned on in November, and the boat is expected to enter service in 2010. A second unit will likely launch in 2010, and a total of eight to ten of the class are planned. Despite a number of technical setbacks, work and test firing of the new SS-NX-30 Bulava submarine-launched ballistic missile, intended to arm the Borey class continues in earnest. Delta-IV-class SSBN Kareliya completed a refit in the fall of 2008 and more than 70 percent of the boat was modernized to carry new SLBMs. Similar modifications are planned for the five remaining members of the class. Late in the year the Akula-class submarine Nerpa, which was to be leased to India, suffered a malfunction of its fire suppression system, which killied 20.
With submarine production taking top priority, work remains slow for surface ship construction. High hopes remain for a new fleet of Russian aircraft carriers to complement the sole Kuznetsov-class carrier now in service, though this is unlikely to occur anytime soon. Two new Steregushchiy-class (Project 20380) frigates are being built with delivery planned by 2012. Delivery of the Project 22350 guided-missile frigate Serguei Gorshkov has been delayed through at least 2013, and January 2008 saw Russia launch its newest Natya-class minesweeper. Reports indicate that the Russian Slava-class cruiser Moskva may have been slightly damaged during the August 2008 attack on Georgian naval forces in Poti.
Russian shipyards are bracing themselves for a dramatic downturn in export sales expected to come around 2012, so Russia is looking to Africa and South America to pick up the slack. It was thus with a mix of national pride and business acumen that the Russian navy sent warships to Venezuela and the Caribbean this past fall. The nuclear-powered Kirov-class guided-missile cruiser Petr Velikiy and Udaloy II-class destroyer Admiral Chabanenko departed Northern Fleet bases on 22 September along with support ships and roughly 1,000 personnel. The Russian warships rendezvoused in November with Venezuelan naval forces in the Caribbean Sea fulfilling the dual role of thumbing its nose to the United States while also making inroads into new arms markets.
In March 2008 Spain launched its 27,000-ton Strategic Projection Ship, the Juan Carlos I. When this amphibious assault ship is delivered in 2009 it will be the largest ship in the fleet, eclipsing the 13,000-ton Rotterdam-class dock landing ships and even the 17,000-ton carrier Principe de Asturias by a wide margin. Midway through the year, Spain announced that it planned to buy Tomahawk land-attack cruise missiles, becoming only the third nation, after the United States and United Kingdom, to deploy the weapon from its warships.
Four S-80-class submarines are planned to enter service by 2016, and four additional units may be ordered as well. These boats have an advanced AIP system, allowing 15 days of quiet submerged operation. Work also continues on the BPC-47 maritime action patrol ship program, commonly known by the Spanish acronym BAM. The fourth unit of this class is due in service in 2011.
Sweden has chosen to close some naval bases and centralize locations in the face of dwindling defense budgets through at least 2011. Sweden and neighboring Finland continue to flirt with the notion of joining NATO together while Sweden witnesses a significant increase in its overseas commitment to international operations. From a naval perspective, the nation has placed a very high priority on maritime surveillance of the Baltic Sea. Five Visby-class guided-missile patrol combatants form an important part of Sweden's rapid-reaction force, and the final unit of the class, Karlstad, finished sea trials in 2008. The Carlskrona, a 3,600-ton minelayer and training ship, is undergoing extensive modifications and is planned to replace the intelligence-collection ship Orion in 2009.
The Gotland-class submarine Halland is due to complete her refit in 2010, and Sweden is also looking to the future as it begins design work on its next generation of submarines, currently designated with the abbreviation NGU. The new subs are intended to replace both the Gotland class and upgraded Västergötland class in the decades to come.
Turkey faced myriad challenges this past year as it worked to uphold responsibilities to its NATO allies while enforcing the 1936 Montreux Convention limiting naval passage through the Bosporus Strait and the Dardanelles following the Russian invasion of Georgia.
With a 4,400-mile coastline, Turkey is planning an immense coastal surveillance system and is also in the process of upgrading its surface and submarine fleet. In 2008 the Turkish government took a major step forward in its plans to upgrade the navy's frigate fleet when it requested the purchase of six MK 41 vertical-launch systems (VLS) and their associated electronics from the United States. Two of the systems will be carried on board the MEKO 200TN Track II-A frigates Barbaros and Orucreis, bringing them up to the more capable Track II-B standard, replacing the MK 29 Sea Sparrow launcher and allowing them to launch Evolved Sea Sparrow missiles. Their sister ships Salihreis and Kemalreis already carry the VLS system but will have their modules upgraded from Baseline IV to Baseline VII configuration as part of the frigate upgrade process. The other four VLS modules that were requested will arm Turkish Oliver Hazard Perry-class guided-missile frigates that are being upgraded under the Genesis-frigate program. Turkey hopes to eventually equip all of its Perry-class frigates with the MK 41 system.
Plans to upgrade some of Turkey's older Type 209 submarines have been scrapped, and six German-designed AIP-capable Type 214 submarines have been ordered instead. The new submarines are to begin joining the fleet in 2015. The first unit of the MilGem-corvette program, Heybeliada, was launched in September and is planned to commission in 2011. This is Turkey's first domestically designed warship, and as many as 12 of the class are planned. In June, the U.S. Military Sealift Command retired the fleet ocean tugboat USNS Powhatan (T-ATF-166), and transferred the craft to Turkey where she has been renamed Inebolu and renumbered A-590.
In 2008 the Ukraine renewed its demands that Russian Black Sea assets leave Sevastopol by 2017. The nation also attempted to tighten control of Russian ships operating in the area by requiring Russian forces in the region to provide three days warning prior to leaving Ukrainian ports, and also to specify the weapons fit and ammunition carried on board each Russian ship. The strict new rules appear a bit unrealistic and are unlikely to be followed or enforced. Calls to increase the 2009 Ukrainian defense budget by $4.3 billion have been met with support.
A contract for the United Kingdom's two new aircraft carriers, the 65,000-ton Queen Elizabeth and Prince of Wales was signed in 2008, and the ships are expected to enter service in 2014 and 2016, respectively. The first new Daring-class (Type 45) destroyer was accepted by the Royal Navy in 2008 and will conduct sea trials throughout the year, having arrived at her new homeport of Portsmouth in January 2009. The budget ax has cut the number of Type 45s being built from eight to six and HMS Dragon, fourth of the class, was launched in November 2008. The UK's Future Surface Combatant program has been moved to the left, and new frigates from the project are now planned to begin replacing Type 22 and Type 23 warships in 2019, rather than the previously planned 2021. Several required variants of the FSC have been established, including an antisubmarine warfare and land-attack variant, a versatile mid-level warship design, and an oceangoing patrol model with mine countermeasures capabilities. Despite the accelerated pace of the new program, 13 Type 23 frigates will have to soldier on far longer than originally planned, with the longest serving frigates now retiring in 2036.
In 2008 four teams were selected to compete for construction of the Military Afloat Reach and Sustainability program that includes up to six 35,000-ton replenishment tankers and other support ships planned to enter service between 2011 and 2021. HMS Ocean completed a year-long refit this past year and is expected to deploy with WAH-64 attack helicopters during 2009, marking the first naval deployment for the Apache helicopter.
In April the Royal Navy's Trafalgar-class nuclear-powered attack submarine HMS Torbay returned to service following an extensive year-long modernization. Improvements to the submarine include an updated type-2076 sonar system and the capability to launch Block IV Tomahawk land-attack cruise missiles. Additional units of the Trafalgar-class are due to receive similar upgrades in the next few years.
Middle East/Africa
Algeria has ordered 21 30-meter patrol boats from France and deliveries of the 100-ton craft began late in 2008. This past November the Algerian Nanuchka-II-class missile boat, Raïs Ali, and the 1,600-ton Koni-class frigate Raïs Kellich, set sail for Northern Shipyard in St. Petersburg, Russia, to begin an extensive two-year upgrade and modernization effort.
Bahrain is upgrading four patrol boats and has just purchased four new landing craft due to enter service by 2011. A number of smaller Coast Guard vessels are undergoing upgrades in the United Arab Emirates.
Iran sits at the north end of the strategically vital Strait of Hormuz, through which 40 percent of the world's crude oil travels. In the event of war, the Iranian armed forces may attempt to close the Strait and are working to enhance their ability to do so swiftly and in a sustainable manner. There are a number of new Iranian naval facilities under construction in the eastern portion of the Straits. During December 2008, Iran took part in extensive naval maneuvers as it expands its naval presence in the Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf.
Refit for one of Iran's Kilo-class submarines by Russia was scheduled for completion in 2008 and two domestically produced Combattante-II-type fast-attack craft were launched later in the year along with a new midget submarine.
Early in 2008 Iraq marked the keel laying of its four new offshore patrol vessels based on the Italian Ubaldo Diciotti-class. Delivery of the class is planned for 2009. Iraq and Kuwait also signed a naval agreement in 2008 providing for increased maritime cooperation to combat illegal activities in the region.
The Israeli Navy remains interested in the U.S. Navy's Littoral Combat Ship program and may purchase four modified versions of the vessel. Major enhancements up to and including the addition of an SPY-1F Aegis air-defense system are being considered. A less advanced, albeit more affordable alternative being looked at is the purchase of an improved Sa'ar V-class warship dubbed the Sa'ar V-B.
Kuwait is seeking to purchase additional offshore patrol vessels as well as smaller patrol boats and is even examining the purchase of three small frigates in the 2012 timeframe. Eight Kuwaiti patrol boats underwent maintenance at French yards beginning in 2008.
This past June Lebanon received the retired 100-ton navy patrol boat Bergen from Germany. The boat has been renamed Tabarja and is the third vessel handed over by Germany to Lebanon since 2007. The transfer of these vessels is part of a larger United Nations effort to train, rebuild, and reconstruct Lebanese maritime forces to prevent terrorism and smuggling of illegal weapons into the country. The two previously transferred vessels, the ex-Bremen 2 and ex-Bremen 9 were retired German police boats that have since been renamed Amchit and Naqoura, respectively.
Libya is in the market for six 48-meter patrol boats and is also shopping for partners to help rebuild their navy and maintain their fleet. In response, Russia has cancelled $4.5 billion in debt in exchange for Libyan military contracts, which are said to include the likely transfer of a Kilo-class submarine.
Morocco has become the first export customer for the Franco-Italian FREMM frigate program and expects delivery of the 5,000-ton warship in the 2012-13 timeframe. Three Dutch-designed Sigma corvettes (based on the Indonesian Diponegoro-class) were also ordered and are to begin entering service by 2013.
As Nigeria debates its level of defense cooperation with U.S. Africa Command, the nation announced plans to build four new military operating bases in the Niger Delta to better protect the oil-rich region. Four 17-meter patrol boats were also ordered and are to join the fleet, as is a larger 31-meter patrol boat.
Oman's Royal Navy is examining the purchase of a number of new inshore patrol and landing craft while the fleet awaits the 2010 delivery of its first of three 2,500-ton ocean patrol vessels. The Omani Police force recently received its first new Mk V-PB(C) patrol boat following that vessel's successful completion of sea trials in January 2008. The new patrol boats are being built by United States Marine in Gulfport, Mississippi, using Foreign Military Sales funding and are based on the Mk V Pegasus Special Operations Craft, which are in use by U.S. Navy Special Operations Forces. Two additional units are now under construction for Oman, though as many as ten more may eventually enter service.
As Saudi Arabia looks to the future, it is examining the prospect of purchasing Littoral Combat Ships from the United States, FREMM frigates from France, or even Type 45 destroyers from the United Kingdom, and is also considering the purchase of supply vessels and additional patrol ships.
The world has finally opened its eyes to the piracy taking place off Somalia's coast, and navies from across the globe have sent warships to monitor shipping and in rare cases, engage the pirates directly. To aid the international coalition gathered off the Horn of Africa, the United Nations Security Council in June 2008 unanimously approved a resolution allowing foreign warships to enter Somali territorial waters when in pursuit of pirates.
South Africa accepted the submarine Queen Modjadji into service early in 2008. This is the third and final Type 209/1400 planned for delivery. In September, the Spioenkop, a South African Valour-class frigate, departed for an Asian tour that marked the longest deployment ever undertaken by a frigate of this class. Looking to the future, South Africa launched a maritime rapid-reaction squadron whose duties include boarding operations, force protection, and other special missions. The force includes patrol boats and landing craft. Plans are also under way to examine the purchase of new offshore patrol boats and even possibly larger strategic support ships. The navy as a whole faced some fairly significant retention problems, however, as highly trained sailors continue departing the military service for higher paying civilian careers.
Deliveries of the United Arab Emirates' six-ship Baynunah-class corvettes has been delayed by the addition of Rolling Airframe Missiles to the weapons fit, though keels for the first five units have been laid down and steel was cut on the sixth by the end of 2008. Twelve 34-meter patrol boats have been ordered with deliveries planned to begin in 2009. Two mine countermeasures craft that were transferred from Germany are being modified to operate in a tropical climate as the navy carries out plans to combat piracy, terrorism, and other illegal activities.
Yemen, satisfied with its 38-meter patrol boats ordered from Austal in 2005, appears likely to order four new 35-meter patrol boats from the company in the near future.
The Americas
Argentina's defense budget has reversed its downward trend and is on the rise for the first time in 20 years. With the new funding, the navy intends to increase training and is also purchasing four SH-3 Sea King helicopters. An upgrade for the TR-1700-class submarine San Juan is planned, as are repairs to the icebreaker Almirante Irizar, expected back in service between 2010 and 2011 after having suffered a serious fire in 2007.
In late December 2008, Brazil announced a major arms agreement with France. Included in the €8.6 billon contract is the Brazilian purchase of 50 general-purpose helicopters and four Franco-Spanish designed Scorp
ne-class attack submarines. The contract also calls for extensive French assistance with design and construction of a Brazilian nuclear-powered attack submarine planned since 1979. France will provide hull construction and electronics expertise for the Brazilian SSN program while the submarine's nuclear reactor will reportedly be designed and built in Brazil, with only limited foreign assistance. No date has yet been released for commissioning of the new vessels, though the delivery of the helicopters is planned to begin 2010.Canada faces the very real understanding that a large portion of its fleet needs to be replaced within the next decade, and naval leaders are working diligently with the inadequate funds available to meet this task. Priorities had included replacing its replenishment ships under the 28,000-ton Joint Support Ship program, but this project was cancelled in August 2008 because no shipyards were able to produce the required vessels within the allotted funding. This leaves efforts to replace the Iroquois class of destroyers and upgrades to the Halifax class of frigates remaining on the naval priority list. Unfortunately, as with many NATO nations, Canada also faces restricted defense budgets as a result of the expensive war in Afghanistan.
Canada must deal with new challenges in the Arctic as well, defending its territorial borders and claims amid aggressive Russian encroachment in the region. Canada is working to bolster its presence in the frigid northern waters and hopes to purchase six to eight arctic offshore patrol vessels for delivery around 2013.
On the submarine front, the Victoria-class boats Victoria and Windsor are expected to be in dry dock throughout most of 2009 while the Chicoutimi, which suffered a fire several years ago, is not expected to return to service until 2010-12, leaving only the Corner Brook available for operations. Things should get better in the future, however, as the navy plans to return the class to full operational service.
Chile received its third and final Type 23 frigate from the United Kingdom by early 2009 and last year also launched a second locally built offshore patrol vessel. Chile also plans to acquire C-295 maritime patrol aircraft beginning in 2009.
Colombia is receiving seven patrol craft from the United States, which marks only a small portion of the military aid provided to that country. In late 2007 the U.S. Coast Guard transferred the sole remaining Balsam-class seagoing buoy tender to the Colombian Navy where she was renamed San Andres.
Ecuador received its second Leander-class frigate from Chile in 2008 amid a major naval leadership crisis that included senior level resignations. The new frigates replace two older units of the class that are in need of retirement. Additionally, Ecuador is to purchase five new patrol boats and eight interceptor craft and is likely to buy several unmanned aerial vehicles for maritime patrol purposes.
Mexico is in the midst of a major war against organized crime and narco-terrorism, and the military unveiled a new defense doctrine emphasizing the importance of the fight to the nation. The navy's side of the defense budget is expected to increase 20 percent in 2009. Six CN-235 maritime patrol aircraft are planned for delivery by 2011 and two additional Oaxaca-class offshore patrol boats will join the fleet in the near future. AS 565 Panther helicopters have been ordered to operate from the four-ship class beginning in 2010. As its maritime forces take delivery of six 20-ton motor lifeboats beginning next year, Mexico continues to plan for a coast guard, using the U.S. Coast Guard as its organizational model.
In Peru, the first of two new 344-ton patrol boats was launched in 2008 and the second unit is to launch in 2009. The boats will play an important role patrolling traffic along the Amazon River.
The United States Navy remains wedded to the concept of a 313-ship fleet as the basis of its 30-year shipbuilding plan. Based on current trends, however, few analysts view the number as realistic.
Internationally, the United States launched its Africa Command (AFRICOM) and the U.S. Navy remains focused on African Partnership Stations in the region. U.S. Southern Command also has a new tool in its toolbox with the re-launching in 2008 of U.S. Navy's historic 4th Fleet. While some nations welcome the increased naval presence these new organizations will bring, other less friendly countries are wary and view the moves as heavy-handed North American imperialism.
High gas prices continued to hit the U.S. armed forces as hard as they have the American driver. With this in mind, congressional leaders have begun to push the Navy to reexamine the prospect of more nuclear-powered surface ships. Cost overruns, meanwhile, continue to plague the Navy's many innovative surface ship programs. The USS Freedom (LCS-1), the first of what is hoped will be 55 Littoral Combat Ships, was commissioned on 1 October 2008. The second LCS, the Independence (LCS-2) was launched in April 2008. The ships are capable of carrying out a myriad of missions through a modular design concept, and the Navy plans to purchase 16 antisubmarine modules, 24 mine countermeasures modules, and 24 surface warfare modules to spread throughout the Fleet. Unfortunately, cost of the LCS program has almost tripled initial estimates, with prices now in the neighborhood of $600 million per vessel.
A surprise debate continues over the appropriate force mix between current Arleigh Burke-class destroyers and the next generation Zumwalt-class warships, which are now estimated to cost nearly $6 billion per ship. The Burke-class' ballistic-missile defense capabilities have played heavily into the decisions and as a result additional Arleigh Burkes may be ordered.
Early in 2008 the Ticonderoga-class cruiser USS Lake Erie (CG-70) launched a modified SM-3 surface-to-air missile against a non-responsive U.S. satellite demonstrating an unprecedented naval anti-satellite capability that generated both awe and concern among foreign powers. Investment in antiship weapon systems has lagged significantly behind BMD technology, but the very capable Harpoon Block III missile is nearing completion, with initial operational capability planned for 2011. The missile will allow for improved accuracy in both littoral and blue-water environments and provides dynamic in-flight retargeting.
Though every new defense program, especially one as large as the San Antonio-class of dock landing ships, has teething problems, the San Antonio (LPD-17) has seen more then her fair share of difficulties. Criticism of the program only got worse when an oil leak forced a repair stop in Bahrain during the ship's maiden deployment. Hopefully, things will improve for the class in the future. The Makin Island (LHD-8), the last unit of the Wasp-class of amphibious assault ships and the only unit to be fitted with a gas turbine engine has been delayed into 2009 while the aging amphibious assault ship Tarawa (LHA-1) was retired in 2008 after 32 years of service.
Two Virginia-class submarines, the North Carolina (SSN-777) and the New Hampshire (SSN-778), joined the Fleet in 2008 and three of four nuclear-powered cruise missile submarines (SSGNs) have now conducted successful deployments, with the fourth Ohio-class submarine to complete its maiden deployment in 2009. In November, a major fire on board the Navy's Advanced Seal Delivery System (ASDS) called the future of that problem-plagued special operations system into question, even after it was tested during the summer on board the USS Ohio (SSGN-726). Late in 2008 the research submarine NR-1 was retired after more than 30 years of service, as was the veteran submarine rescue vehicle Mystic (DSRV-1), having been replaced by a more modern submarine rescue system.
Stressed from intensive wartime flight operations, the USS Enterprise (CVN-65) is expected to complete its latest overhaul in 2009. The carrier is planned to remain in service until 2013. The USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63), the sole remaining conventionally-powered carrier in U.S. service, departed her homeport of Japan and was decommissioned in early 2009. Despite local anti-nuclear protests in Japan, the fossil-fueled carrier was replaced by the nuclear-powered USS George Washington (CVN-73), which suffered an expensive and preventable fire while en route, delaying her transfer. Work has been completed on the final Nimitz-class carrier, the George H. W. Bush (CVN-77), and the warship was commissioned in January 2009. Construction of the newest class of carriers, the Gerald R. Ford class, began in 2008 and a keel laying is planned for 2009.
The U.S. naval aviation community saw a number of firsts in 2008. In the spring the Short Take-Off and Vertical Landing (STOVL) variant of the Joint Strike Fighter, the F-35B, had its first flight. The Navy also accepted its first EA-18G Growler, more than 85 of which are planned for service. The Navy's new P-8 Poseidon maritime patrol aircraft will begin replacing the P-3C Orion in 2012 with a total of 108 P-8s planned.
With greater demand placed on it by ever-increasing homeland security requirements, the U.S. Coast Guard may grow by as much as 50 percent during the coming years. The delayed and over-budget Coast Guard Deepwater project has had to restructure to survive, though 2008 brought with it some good news for the program as the first Maritime Security Cutter, the USCGC Bertholf (WMSL-750), was commissioned in August 2008. The vessel is expected to undergo two years of sea trials prior to her first deployment. Deliveries of the Coast Guard's new HC-144A maritime patrol aircraft continue as well.
Uruguay has acquired two Commandant Riviere-class frigates from Portugal, allowing it to retire two older units of the class transferred from France nearly 20 years earlier. Uruguay also ordered an 85-meter Offshore Patrol Vessel from Chile though an estimated delivery date for the vessel remains uncertain.
Venezuela has boosted its 2009 defense spending by 25 percent over an already unprecedented 2008 level. Since 2004, Venezuela has purchased more than $4 billion in arms from Russian suppliers, though the dropping price of oil may delay some of the nation's most aggressive future plans. Taking advantage of expanding ties with Russia, Hugo Chavez has borrowed $1 billion from the Kremlin to pay for more weapons and plans to order three Kilo-class submarines at a total cost of around $1.4 billion. Delivery of the submarine is, somewhat optimistically, desired in 2012. Amur-class submarines are also on the shopping list, with deliveries hoped for between 2013 and 2015. Four patrol ships and eight patrol boats are being built in Spain, with the first patrol ship due to enter service late in 2009 and the remaining three by 2011. The recent acquisition of several new Griffon 200TD hovercraft allows the Venezuelan Marine Corps to expand its reach as well. An upgrade to the first unit of the Capana class of tank landing ships is under way in Cuba, and the second unit is to follow upon its completion. A desire to build a large amphibious dock landing ship has also been declared, though as with all things in the Venezuelan navy, only time will tell if this requirement will pan out.