As the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan continue to require large numbers of U.S. and allied ground forces, aging naval assets across the globe face ever greater burdens while they hold the line, deterring belligerent nations and conventional threats, taking on terrorists, and facing down pirates across the open oceans and coastlines of the world. Military and defense leaders must remain aware that in many regions of the world, tomorrow's conflicts will increasingly be naval affairs. Indeed, though the United States, and many of its allies are short of cash to spend on modernizing their fleets, petrodollars and economic growth are fueling massive naval and military buildups across many regions of the globe.
This review of the world's navies sheds light on such threats and presents a snapshot of naval activities during the past year. It is arranged by region, with maritime nations discussed alphabetically under each subheading.
Australia and Asia
Faced with a rapid buildup of naval forces throughout the Asian Pacific region, Australia is doing all it can to maintain a balanced conventional blue-water fleet and a force capable of countering terrorism, operating smoothly in the littorals, and responding to humanitarian disasters when needed. This is a difficult balance for a nation with little more than 20 million inhabitants, but one must credit the Australian leadership for not ignoring the threat, and a recent 10.6 percent increase in the defense budget will help keep Australia's important naval programs sailing in the right direction.
On the surface warfare front, Australia is committed to constructing at least three Air Warfare Destroyers fitted with the Aegis air defense system. The program, now known as the Hobart class, is planned for service entry between 2014 and 2017. Following heated competition for the hull design of the new destroyer, Spain's Navantia shipyard was selected and the new Hobart class will be built on a modified version of the Spanish Álvaro de Bazán-class warships. While the Hobart-class destroyers are being designed and built, Australia's frigate fleet is being modernized as older ships such as the Adelaide are decommissioned and ANZAC frigates undergo radar and other improvements. The Oliver Hazard Perry-class guided-missile frigates remaining in service are in the midst of a modernization program that will outfit them with new electronics and the capability to launch SM-2 and Evolved Sea Sparrow surface-to-air missiles.
In line with the search for a well-balanced and continually evolving fleet, Australia signed a deal during 2007 to build two 27,000-ton amphibious assault ships, similar to Spain's Strategic Projection Ship Juan Carlos I. The new ships, planned for 2013 and 2015 delivery, will be named Canberra and Adelaide, and are expected to replace the amphibious ships Kanimbla and Manoora. Australia is also in the market for a number of new landing craft. Sea trials recently uncovered some problems that are now being rectified in the new LCM-2000 program, being purchased to replace the current LCM (8)-class.
On the patrol front, the Armidale-class patrol boat program is now complete. By early 2008 all 14 of the class had been commissioned into service, replacing the older Fremantle class. Reports have begun to surface concerning fuel line difficulties in the new Armidale fleet, which could prove troublesome if not dealt with as the vessels are expected to remain in service for decades to come.
There is great concern among analysts that Australian antisubmarine warfare capabilities may be falling behind the requirements curve, and this is not so much due to lack of Australian capabilities as it is to the rapid proliferation of capable submarine fleets throughout the region. With so many nations investing in submarine technology, a number of reports indicate that the Australians would do well to invest more heavily in ASW assets. Despite a number of serious setbacks and a six-year delay in the SH-2G Super SeaSprite naval helicopter program, testing has resumed, and planners are now starting to see the proverbial light at the end of the tunnel. The Royal Australian Navy plans to replace its Sea King helicopter fleet with NH-90 helicopters and is looking at the U.S. Navy's P-8A Poseidon multi-mission aircraft as a possible replacement for the P-3C Orion.
Elsewhere in Asia, Castle-class patrol ships Leeds Castle and Dumbarton Castle were expected to transfer from the United Kingdom to Bangladesh by the end of 2008, but protests from Pakistan have placed the deal on hold.
Though Brunei refused to accept delivery of three frigates ordered in 1998 and completed by 2005, the long drawn out legal battle over the F2000-class warships built by BAE Systems at Scotstoun shipyard has finally come to a conclusion. During the summer of 2007 a deal was reached, and while details remain confidential, Brunei has apparently accepted ownership of the three ships but has decided to offer them for sale on the international market through the German firm L??rssen. There has been no official comment on the specific reason the vessels were initially rejected. It has been speculated that the frigates, armed with eight Exocet antiship missiles and a Sea Wolf vertical-launch surface-to-air missile system, were simply too complicated for the small Southeast Asian navy to operate.
In keeping with its newfound status as a global superpower, the rising tide of China's People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) continued unabated during the past year. As this naval buildup has now lasted for much of the past decade, it seems logical that work on the next ambitious naval project, a Chinese aircraft carrier program, may soon begin. A number of signs point in this direction, though no proof has been uncovered for or against the proposition of such a program. Recent reports, however, do indicate that the sale of Russian Su-33 Flanker fighters had been finalized by the end of 2007 and these may be used on board the former Russian aircraft carrier Varyag, which has recently been undergoing some sort of unknown renovation at Dalian Shipyard. In fact, a growing number of naval analysts have begun to conclude that the ex-Varyag may eventually serve as China's first training carrier, perhaps in preparation for design and construction of its own indigenous-built vessels.
Though keeping a near-term focus on the Taiwan Strait region, the Chinese naval leadership is carefully laying the groundwork for a modern naval force capable of sustained strategic operations over ocean distances. With its fourth Sovremennyy-class destroyer delivered from Russia by late 2006, the PLAN is now focusing attention on domestic shipbuilding capabilities. Its surface fleet is in many ways unrecognizable from that which existed merely a decade ago, as capable Type 052C air-defense destroyers and Type 054A frigates supplement already modern warships like the two Type 054 frigates delivered just two years prior. China is working to fine-tune their shipbuilding and design methods, and when technical difficulties arise, a newer class is often built, replacing the older model to quickly rectify the problem.
Ten improved Kilo-class submarines, also from Russia, have been delivered, and production appears to have completed on the domestically produced Song class, which is now being joined in service by the Yuan-class (Project 041) boats. On the nuclear-powered front, the first Project 093 nuclear-powered attack submarine is now reportedly operational, while a second is planned to enter service later this year. At least five 093 SSNs are planned to replace the aging and noisy Han-class SSNs from a previous generation. Two Jin-class (Project 094) nuclear-powered ballistic-missile submarines were recently photographed side by side at an unknown stage of completion in China, and at least four of the class are expected in service.
China's amphibious capabilities also continue to grow, and three or more Type 071 12,000-ton amphibious transport docks are likely to be built. The first of the class was launched at the Hudong-Zhonghua Shipyard, Shanghai, during December 2006.
Taken in isolation, the Chinese naval buildup need not be cause for concern. Recent activity concerning the last minute rejection of a Thanksgiving 2007 port call by the USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63), however, and the failure of Chinese authorities to allow U.S. Navy mine countermeasures ships a port of safe haven during a November 2007 storm appear to demonstrate an intent that the United States would be ill advised to ignore.
Far to the south in the small nation of East Timor, military leaders are looking far into the future as plans are drafted for a 3,000-strong joint defense force. The future maritime forces may include a light-patrol force tasked with coastal defense duties and oil platform protection. Leaders have also expressed hopes that acquisition of a small force of corvette-sized warships and landing craft might be possible in the years ahead.
India is facing some short-term frustration over delays to its stated goal of a three aircraft carrier navy by 2017. Until late 2007, estimates called for the former Russian carrier ex-Admiral Gorshkov, now named Vikramaditya, to complete extensive refitting and modernization by 2008. This now appears impossible, as the amount of work required was apparently underestimated. A delay of at least two years is now expected before the Vikramaditya will be ready for service.
The most ambitious portion of India's carrier program is the Vikrant-class Air Defense Ship, which calls for construction of a 40,000-ton aircraft carrier at Cochin Shipyard by 2012. A sister ship to Vikrant is planned for service in 2017. Once complete, these new carriers will operate MiG-29 fighters, helicopters, and Tejas combat aircraft. Currently, India operates the former British carrier Viraat (ex-Hermes), which is expected to retire around 2012.
Other than the carrier delays, however, the Indian Navy had a very fruitful 2007, which began in January with the transfer of the amphibious transport dock USS Trenton (LPD-14) which has been renamed Jalashwa. This turnover marked the first time in history that a U.S. Navy vessel was transferred to the Indian Navy. A second unit is to be transferred in 2008. Four LCM (8) landing craft were also transferred alongside the 17,000-ton Jalashwa. That same month Shardul, first of the new class of tank landing ships built at Garden Reach shipbuilders in Calcutta, was commissioned. At least two more ships of the class, Kesari and Airavat, are planned. Three new Project 15A destroyers are expected in service between 2008 and 2011 while Satpura, the third Shivalik-class (Project 17) destroyer, is projected to join the fleet by the end of 2008. Up to nine additional Project 17 units are planned.
The long planned transfer and lease of two Akula-class submarines from Russia to India appears alive, and media reports indicate that the first unit is to be turned over in late 2008, with a second sub to follow in 2010. As the country's navy expands in capability, so too does the 30-year-old Indian Coast Guard. The current coast guard plan calls for the acquisition of 15 new ships of varying sizes in addition to 23 fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft over the next 15 years. This is a large increase in size for the coast guard, and its likelihood of reaching fruition is hard to judge so far into the future.
The first of Indonesia's new 91-meter corvettes, Diponegoro, entered service in 2007, while work continues at Schelde Naval shipyard in the Netherlands on the remaining three units of the class that are expected to join the Indonesian fleet by 2009. Late in 2006, four Kilo-class submarines were reportedly ordered from Russia by Indonesia with an option for at least two additional Kilo-class and two Amur 950-class submarines. On a positive note, pirate attacks in the Strait of Malacca have apparently dipped this past year, most likely because of increasingly strong cooperation between Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore.
Several major programs are coming to completion for Japan's Maritime Self-Defense Force. On 23 August 2007 the service launched the first of the four-ship Hyuga class of helicopter-carrying "destroyers," which is expected to commission in March 2009. A second unit of the 18,000-ton class is expected in service around 2011. Both ships will carry three SH-60 Seahawk helicopters plus one MH-53 mine countermeasures helicopter, but are capable of carrying up to 11 CH-47 Chinook-size aircraft.
Japan received a major defensive capability boost on 17 December 2007, when the JMSDF destroyer Kongo engaged, intercepted, and destroyed a medium-range ballistic missile target test-launched from the U.S. Navy's Pacific Missile Range Facility at Kauai, Hawaii. As the WMD threat remains a major concern for allies around the globe, particularly with a number of potential hot spots and adversaries in such close proximity to Japan, BMD-capable ships like the Kongo and improved Kongo destroyers will continue to play an important role, thus remaining a budgetary priority.
A similar priority also exists for submarine and antisubmarine warfare in the JMSDF. The tenth submarine of the Oyashio class, Setoshio was commissioned on 28 February 2007, while Soryu, the first of Japan's improved Oyashio-class submarines, was launched on 5 December 2007. Oyashio is the first Japanese submarine fitted with an air independent propulsion (AIP) system. Japan is also investing in a new P-X maritime patrol aircraft to replace its current fleet of P-3 Orions. With an in-service date planned for 2011, the P-X program celebrated its first flight in the fall of 2007.
In Malaysia the first two units of the six-ship Kadah class of 1,600-ton corvettes were declared fully operational by November 2007. The program has not been without its difficulties, and the first unit of the class reportedly failed its initial sea trials. To make matters worse, funding constraints caused a temporary work stoppage on the four remaining sisters, currently slated to enter service between 2008 and 2012. Though as many as 27 of the class had been hoped for, only six will likely be built. Two additional Yarrow 2000-class frigates are also planned to supplement the Lekiu and Jebat, which have been in service since 2000.
Malaysia's Scorpene submarine program continues to make strides, and October 2007 saw the launching of its first unit, Tunku Abdul Rahman, which is to be joined in 2009 by sister Tun Razak. A large new naval base is in the works for the Malaysian fleet, and following some delays, the facility is scheduled to open its doors in 2009. The Sepanggar Bay base will consist of yard facilities along with the capability to support surface, submarine, and aviation assets.
The major elements of the New Zealand's Project Protector program wraps up this year with delivery of Wellington, the project's second and final offshore patrol vessel. Between 2006 and 2008, New Zealand underwent a dramatic and largely unprecedented naval recapitalization effort that saw the delivery of four 340-ton inshore patrol vessels, two 1,600-ton offshore patrol vessels, and a single 9,000-ton multi-role amphibious warfare vessel. Amazingly, none of these warships had been laid down before 2005, yet all are expected to be operational by the close of 2008. To make room for the new vessels, a number of older ships have been retired, including all four Moa-class patrol craft.
In early 2007, reports began to emerge from North Korea indicating that a new class of hovercraft was being introduced into regional waters. Displacing 170 tons, the 38-meter vessels are reportedly armed with 57-mm and 30-mm machine guns and will join scores of similar North Korean craft that have been in service since the 1980s.
Pakistan's first Chinese F-22P frigates are now expected in service by 2009, with at least three of the class to be ready by 2013. The four planned frigates will eventually replace six ex-U.K. Amazon-class ships built in the early 1970s. Additionally, Zarrar, the first of a new type of Turkish-built MRTP-33 fast attack craft, joined the fleet in November 2007, with a second unit planned for service in 2008.
Pakistan has ordered AIP add-on kits for its two Agosta-90B-class submarines. Hamza, the third and final Agosta-90B-class submarine joins the fleet in 2008 and is being fitted with a MEMSA AIP system from the start. In order to replace the older Agosta and recently retired Daphne-boats, Pakistan hopes to launch a new program for up to five additional submarines and is said to favor domestically produced models of Scorpene or Type 214 submarines with a planned delivery date of 2014.
The Philippine Navy hopes to acquire at least two larger patrol boats for use in riverine operations. In mid-2007 Australia agreed to supply up to 30 small river gunboats to the Philippines for help with counter-terrorist activities.
Singapore is seeing a major boost in its blue water capabilities in the form of Formidable-class frigates, the first units of which are now entering service following extended seas trials and fitting out periods. These heavily armed warships carry Harpoon antiship missiles, Aster 15 surface-to-air missiles, and a 76-mm gun, plus small arms for close-in engagements, and a Seahawk helicopter for ASW and utility duties. The planning is now also well under way for two additional Swedish submarines to enter service in 2010.
South Korea is now bringing its KDX II destroyer program to a conclusion as more advanced, Aegis-equipped KDX-III destroyers ramp up for delivery. All six KDX II-class destroyers will be fully operational by this year, and the first KDX III units are expected to enter service in 2009. A new Ulsan-I frigate is also in the works to replace the nine-ship Ulsan class. Delivery of the first 2,300-ton Ulsan-I is planned for 2011, and as many as 15 of these frigates may someday see service.
In December 2006, South Korea retired two tank-landing ships, Unbong (ex-LST-1010) and Weebong (ex-USS Johnson County, LST-849), which had been in service for more than 60 years. South Korea's largest warship, the 19,000-ton amphibious assault ship, Dokdo, entered service in the summer of 2007. A sister ship, to be named Marado, is expected in service by 2010, and a third unit, built to a slightly modified design, will likely join the fleet by 2015. Eventual plans call for these large amphibious ships to form the core element of South Korea's future maritime Rapid Reaction Fleet.
The first of six German-designed Type 214 submarines, Son Won-il, recently entered service with South Korea, and a second Type 214 submarine was launched on 13 June 2007. The third unit remains under construction, with its launch scheduled for 2008. The KSS-II, a new class of submarine based largely on South Korean technology, is also known to be in the works.
Battles raged last year between the Sri Lankan Navy and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, more commonly known as the Tamil Tigers. Reports indicate that Sri Lankan forces destroyed nine of ten Tamil Tiger vessels. Thus it appears that the group, labeled a terrorist organization by the U.S. State Department, will be surreptitiously shopping for some craft in the months ahead.
In Taiwan, the plan to purchase eight diesel submarines, partially paid for with U.S. foreign military aid, has been formally canceled by Taiwan's legislature. Though promised by the George W. Bush administration in 2001, few nations with submarine expertise seemed willing to raise the wrath of mainland China by offering such advanced technology to Taiwan.
Europe
On 5 October 2007, Belgium retired the Westdiep, its fourth and final Wielingen-class frigate. The long-serving Wielingen class is being replaced in Belgian service by two retired Karel Doorman-class frigates transferred from the Netherlands and subsequently renamed Leopold I and Louise Marie.
As Bulgaria's military moves to an all-volunteer force in 2008, there remains a strong impetus to modernize the fleet while sculpting a professional military suitable to future 21st-century warfare. Bulgaria recently agreed to purchase two more retired Wielingen-class frigates from Belgium, along with the mine hunter Myosotis. All three vessels are due for delivery by 2009. The new ships join Druzki, a retired Belgian frigate transferred in 2005. Bulgaria has also deferred a decision to purchase four Gowind-200 corvettes, which are derived from the Frigates Europeenes Multi-Mission (FREMM) frigate program currently being constructed in France and Italy.
In Denmark both Flexible Support Ships have been delivered, and first of the class, Absalon, is now preparing to host NATO's Combined Task Force 150 off the coast of Africa later this year. Three new flexible patrol ships are also planned for the Danish fleet. The new units lack the stern vehicle ramp fitted to the Absalon class, though are otherwise quite similar and will likely be fitted with SM-2 Block IIIA and Evolved Sea Sparrow missiles.
In the summer of 2007, Estonia received the retired British Royal Navy mine countermeasures vessel ex-HMS Sandown, and it has been renamed Admiral Cowan. Sister ship ex-Inverness was transferred in January 2008 and renamed Sakala, while ex-Bridport is expected to follow from the United Kingdom by 2009. Still quite youthful by mine countermeasures standards, the ships are expected to have many years of useful service remaining.
By the end of 2007, both of Finland's Hämeenmaa-class minelayers have returned to the fleet after extensive overhauls, and the country's navy is looking at the possibility of building three additional mine countermeasures vessels for delivery in the 2010 timeframe.
France's Charles de Gaulle nuclear-powered aircraft carrier has been undergoing an extensive overhaul since mid-2007 and is unlikely to return to service before late 2008. At a cost of between 2.5 and 3 billion euros, France's planned second aircraft carrier, the conventionally powered PA2 program, is enormously expensive but essential if France is to maintain the type of power-projection capability it has grown accustomed to wielding on the open ocean. France's two new 20,000-ton amphibious warships, Mistral and Tonnerre also contribute greatly to this capability.
Due to cost constraints, the advanced French Forbin (Horizon)-class guided-missile destroyer program has been capped at only two units, with Forbin due to enter service in 2008 and Chevalier Paul now being fitted out. Older French warships such as Cassard and Jean Bart will be forced to soldier on until adequate numbers of the new multi-purpose FREMM frigates are delivered. In 2007 France announced the names of its first batch of multi-purpose frigates: Aquitaine, Normandie, Provence, Bretagne, Auvergne, Languedoc, Alsace, and Lorraine. France plans to purchase 17 units in total, with the first of the class entering service in 2011.
The French submarine force plans for six Suffren (Barracuda)-class nuclear-powered attack submarines to begin entering service in 2016. First steel for the Suffren was cut in December 2007. Meanwhile the fourth and final Le Triomphant-class nuclear-powered ballistic-missile submarine remains under construction at DCN, Cherbourg, and is expected in service by late 2010.
In the summer of 2007 Germany signed an order to purchase four new F-125 frigates. These 6,000-ton vessels are expected to deliver beginning in 2014, and the class is to be armed with a complement of antiship and self-defense missiles, along with a 127-mm Oto Melara gun in place of the 155-mm gun that was planned but has proven too difficult and expensive to field.
Progress on the German K-130 corvette program is also proceeding well, and sea trials on Erfurt, the third of the class, began late in 2007, with service-entry planned for 2008. Namesake and first unit of the class, Braunschweig, was handed over to the German Navy on 29 January 2008, with Magdeburg, second of the class, to follow soon thereafter. Five units are planned, with the remaining sisters, Oldenburg and Ludwigshafen am Rhein, expected in service by early 2009.
August 2007 marked the official start of production for the second batch of Type 212A-class submarines being built for the German Navy. The two submarines, U 35 and U 36, are planned to enter service in 2012 and 2013 respectively, at which time they will join four older sisters, U 31, U 32, U 33, and U 34, all built to the same design. In 2007 Germany's Type 404 multi-purpose tender Main completed modernization to become that nation's newest submarine tender and supply vessel.
Greece has benefited from a number of modest improvements to its fleet as work continues to transform the force. In March 2007 the U.S. Navy transferred the Osprey-class mine hunters Heron (MHC-52) and Pelican (MHC-54) to the Hellenic Navy, where they have been renamed Calypso and Efnik. The first Combattante IIIN-class guided-missile patrol craft to complete modernization, Antipliarchos Lascos, was returned to the fleet in 2007 following acceptance trials. Three sister ships are expected to rejoin the fleet during 2008-09.
Initial problems that delayed service entry for the first Type 214 submarine seem to have been resolved, and Papanikolis has now entered service. Sisters Pipinos, Matrozos, and Katsonis are expected to enter service in 2008, 2009, and 2010 respectively. Additionally, Greece has expressed interest in a new type of guided-missile destroyer and hopes to order up to six of the as-yet-unnamed class between 2010 and 2015.
Ireland recently announced its intention to replace the 65-meter Emer-class patrol ships, and a request for proposals has been issued calling for two 85-meter offshore patrol vessels and a single 135-meter Extended Patrol vessel. Selection of the winning design is expected in 2008.
As Italy's 25,000-ton V/STOL aircraft carrier Cavour nears full operational capability, talks are now under way for a second unit of the class. Andrea Doria, first of the Italian Horizon-class destroyer program, was delivered in December 2007 and will be undergoing sea trials during much of 2008, while sister Caio Duilio is scheduled to enter service in 2009. The Franco-Italian FREMM program remains a high priority for Italy, and ten units are planned by 2017, with the first of the class, Carlo Bergamini, now scheduled for commissioning in 2011. Two of Italy's German designed Type 212A attack submarines, Scire and Salvatore Todaro, are now in service and two additional units are planned.
The transfer to Latvia of retired Dutch mine countermeasures vessels is rapidly changing the look of their maritime force. Under a 57-million euro contract signed in August 2005, five Alkmaar-class ships are being transferred to Latvia. In February 2007 the first of these, the ex-Harlingen, joined the Latvian fleet where she was renamed Imanta, and in September the ex-Scheveningen, renamed Viesturs, followed suit. By 2009 retired Dutch sisters Delfzijl, Dordrecht, and Alkmaar will also have been transferred, replacing the Latvian fleet of Kondor II class and ex-German Type 331B vessels. Latvia has also placed orders for up to five new patrol boats built to a Small Waterplane Area Twin Hull (SWATH) design for delivery by 2009.
The new nation of Montenegro is in the process of selling or scrapping a vast portion of its naval assets to fund other programs more essential to its young economy. Two of Montenegro's frigates, Kotor and Novi Sad, are said to be in reasonable condition and may remain in service along with four Type 240-guided-missile patrol ships. However, salvage of the nation's Sava-class submarine and three midget submarines remains unlikely. During 2007 all five stricken Osa-I guided-missile patrol boats were overhauled and sold to Egypt along with seven coastal defense missile systems and their associated Styx missiles. Remaining patrol units of the 125-ton Mirna-class have been put up for sale, while the last operational Sirius-class mine-hunter is being converted for civilian use.
During 2007 the Netherlands celebrated the 400th birthday of naval hero Michiel de Ruyter amid much fanfare. However, the decision to cancel a planned purchase of 30 Tomahawk land-attack cruise missiles in the spring of 2007 marked a dramatic, though financially understandable, change in policy. With six of the eight Karel Doorman-class frigates retired from service by early 2007, the Netherlands is looking well into the future for the class' replacement as it examines options for four new oceangoing patrol vessels. Work is also ongoing to develop new ballistic-missile defense and land attack capabilities for the four De Zeven Provinciën-class guided-missile frigates.
Though five Alkmaar-class mine hunters have been withdrawn from service, surviving members are to be upgraded with additional mine countermeasures capabilities. A multi-purpose replacement, capable of doing more than just underway replenishment, is also being sought for the auxiliary support ship Zuiderkruis. Major strengthening of the Royal Netherlands Marine Corps is currently being examined, and an emphasis on expeditionary capabilities can clearly be seen in the Dutch Navy's newest 16,000-ton amphibious transport, Johan de Witt, which underwent sea trials while exercising with allies in late 2007.
In Norway, the third of five Fridtjof Nansen-class frigates, Otto Sverdrup, joined the fleet in late 2007 amid a major push to bring the navy's new Naval Strike Missile (NSM) into service. Investigations into a new class of submarines, intended to replace the current generation of six Ula submarines from around 2020, remains on the books and has been ongoing since the demise of the Viking submarine program in 2002.
In Poland, there is a strong effort to modernize the military and to ensure that Polish warships are deployable and compatible with those of other NATO navies. Work on the Meko A-100-class frigates (Project 621) continues, albeit very slowly, and the first hull is only now complete, having been started in 2001. Though initially six of the class was planned, only two units are now expected to enter service. Additionally, all three Orkan-class guided missile patrol craft have been extensively modernized and now carry the Swedish RBS-15 Mk3 antiship missile.
In Portugal, the deal to acquire two Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates from the U.S. Navy failed to materialize, and the country instead chose to purchase two retired frigates from the Netherlands with delivery of the vessels planned by 2009. To make room in the budget for the ships, Portugal's last two remaining Commandant Riviere-type frigates, Comandante João Belo and Comandante Sacadura Cabral, were retired from service this past spring and have been sold to Uruguay. Portugal hopes to decommission its two Daphné-class submarines beginning in 2009, as two new Type 209 air independent propulsion submarines are delivered from Germany.
Romania's primary area of importance remains the Black Sea, and efforts are now well under way to establish a Romanian network that helps monitor Black Sea maritime traffic. Though there have been some minor disagreements with BAE Systems over funding for upgrades to Romania's two recently acquired Type-22 frigates, the problems appear to be resolving. Indeed, by the end of 2007 the Romanian fleet had received the second of three Puma naval helicopters for use on board the new warships. Looking to the future, Romania hopes to fund new mine-countermeasures vessels, an increased command and control capability for its warships, and, in the longer term, reactivate its sole Kilo-class submarine Delfinul, which has been inactive for a decade.
Russia is currently in the midst of a great military reanimation. With an increase in defense expenditures of 23 percent in 2007, Russia's newest military buildup is funded almost exclusively by the high price of oil. Rather than invest solely in new equipment, it now appears that great care is being made to lay a proper foundation for the future.
A Potemkin navy no more, the impact of this new influx of cash is best illustrated by Russia's largest naval exercise in 15 years, which began in December 2007. The three-month exercise and 12,000-mile cruise involving the aircraft carrier Kuznetsov, two Udaloy-class destroyers, and a number of support ships began in the North Atlantic and continued into the new year with operations in the Mediterranean Sea, where the group was joined by Black Sea flagship Moskva, a Slava-class cruiser. In scenes not viewed since the end of the Cold War, Russian Bear bombers during 2007 were again escorted out to sea by NATO fighters, while allied maritime patrol aircraft carefully monitored and shared information on Russian naval activities.
Russia will withdraw from its base at Sevastopol by 2017, and a major new base reconstruction program is under way at Novorossiysk to take its place. Two bases are also being built on the Kamchatka Peninsula. There is even talk among some naval leaders of plans to build six aircraft carriers over the next 20 years. For the time being, however, Russia has made export orders a higher priority than domestic Russian naval warship production.
In terms of actual construction, 2007 saw the first project 20380 frigate, Steregushchiy, commission. Up to 20 of the class are planned. The launch of the first new Borey-class ballistic-missile submarines, Yuriy Dolgorukiy, took place in 2007, as did the submerged test of Russia's new 8,000-plus km range Sineva SLBM, which was conducted from the Delta IV-class missile submarine Tula.
The Spanish Navy has set a number of priorities over the next ten years; this includes the S-80 submarine program, which calls for four submarines to be built by 2015, completion of the Álvaro de Bazán-class guided-missile frigate program, and acquisition of more than 30 NH-90 helicopters by 2020. Spain has also begun shopping for a long-range land-attack missile similar in capability to the U.S. Tomahawk. The year 2007 saw progress on all these programs. The Álvaro de Bazán-class in particular was a success, with four guided-missile frigates having now completed sea trials. Two additional units of the class, built to a slightly modified configuration, are expected in service beginning in 2011. By far Spain's largest single new construction unit is the 27,000-ton amphibious assault ship Juan Carlos I. Launched in November 2007, the new amphibious assault ship is expected in service by 2009.
Though Sweden's Navy had remained optimistic that additional units of the Visby guided-missile patrol ships would be built, it now appears that funding restrictions have limited the buy to five ships, all of which will have entered service by late 2008. Early in 2007 Sweden announced orders for a new prototype variant of its successful Combatboat (CB) 90 series landing craft. The new CB 2010M vessels are expected to be 24 meters long and will be fitted with a twin-barrel 120-mm mortar system. A prototype is due in service by the end of 2008 and production of four additional units is expected to begin around 2011. Sweden's advanced AIP-equipped submarine Gotland returned to Sweden last year having operated from San Diego, California, since June 2005, during which time she conducted long-term ASW training with U.S. ships and sub-hunting forces.
In Turkey the first Heybeliada-class (MILGEM) corvette prototype is under construction and is planned for completion in 2009, with a 2012 entry into service. Eight of the class are planned. A number of new 56-meter patrol craft are also in production for the Turkish fleet. Having accepted its eighth and final Type 209/1400 submarine into service in 2007, Turkey announced an acquisition program for six new AIP-equipped submarines while expressing a strong desire to acquire a large amphibious transport vessel along with four small landing craft and perhaps two dozen or more amphibious assault vehicles. Turkey also plans to acquire two additional Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates from the U.S. Navy by 2009.
The United Kingdom's plan for two 65,000-ton aircraft carriers has been approved and the first, Queen Elizabeth, is expected in service during 2014, while second of the class, Prince of Wales, is expected by 2017. Each carrier will be capable of operating 10 fixed-wing F-35 Joint Strike Fighters (with a surge capability of 18 JSFs) in addition to 10 helicopters. Of the older Invincible-class aircraft carriers, Ark Royal has been converted to operate as a "commando carrier" though is still capable of operating in the more conventional strike carrier role as required.
The Royal Navy's Type 45 guided-missile destroyer program is progressing, though slower than leadership would have wished. First unit of the class, HMS Daring, was launched in early 2006 and is currently undergoing sea trials, but is not expected in service until 2009. Additional units will begin following in 2010, and between six and eight Type 45 destroyers are planned. Looking even further into the future, the Royal Navy has begun work on the Future Surface Combatant, a project to replace the current generation of frigates, mine-countermeasures vessels, and survey ships with three new tiers of ships for fleet entry around 2035.
A new class of afloat support ships to replace the current generation of aging Royal Fleet Auxiliary assets is in the works. The Maritime Afloat Reach and Support (MARS) project currently calls for 11 support ships to be purchased between 2011 and 2021 consisting of six tankers, two solid support ships and three joint logistics vessels. In addition, HMS Clyde, Britain's new Falkland Islands patrol ship, was commissioned into service this past year.
British naval aviation planners are looking to the future, and 2007 saw upgraded Royal Navy HC.4+ Sea King helicopters deploy to the war zone in Afghanistan, while Merlin naval helicopters patrolled in the Strait of Hormuz. Upgrades to the fixed-wing Nimrod maritime patrol aircraft fleet include the addition of a new electro-optic sensor on a number of older MR.2 aircraft, while budgetary wrangling continues on efforts to convert surviving less capable aircraft to MRA.4 production standard. Current plans call for the purchase of 138 short take-off/vertical landing variants of the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter to operate from the Royal Navy's fleet of carriers, with deliveries expected to begin around 2014.
The Royal Navy's submarine recapitalization effort continues, and the first boat in the Astute class of nuclear-powered attack submarines was launched in June 2007, with an in-service date planned for 2009. Three additional submarines are now under construction, with six to eight total boats of the class planned for the future. As new Astute-class units are commissioned, remaining units of the Swiftsure class will be retired alongside the oldest units of the Trafalgar class. The decision has also been made to move ahead with the United Kingdom's next generation of nuclear deterrent, and designs are currently being investigated to replace the Vanguard-class nuclear-powered ballistic-missile submarines, which entered service in the late 1990s.
Middle East/Africa
This past year Egypt has been able to score a number of terrific bargains off the naval shelf. As Montenegro began divesting itself of major naval assets, Egypt purchased five Osa-I class guided-missile patrol boats and may purchase two laid-up Una-class midget submarines from that nation as well. In January 2007 Egypt also received two decommissioned U.S. Navy Osprey-class coastal mine hunters.
As Iran flexes muscle in the Persian Gulf region, it is seeking increased military might to back up its belligerent talk. Primary among Iran's military requirements is a desire for longer range aviation and strike assets. Along these lines, an increasing number of long-inoperable F-14 Tomcat fighters are said to be entering service following increased investment in Iran's domestic aviation and defense-electronics industry. Up to 44 F-14s have been reported operational as of mid-2007. Iran has also been looking to equip a larger number of its fast attack craft with variants of the Chinese C-802 antiship missile. U.S. newspaper reports this past year indicated that China may be selling Iran a publicly unknown number of C-14 Catamaran vessels, which could pose a high speed/high-performance threat to allied vessels in the region. Indeed, allied navies rightfully took notice when Iran kidnapped 15 British sailors in Iraqi waters early in 2007. Small craft from the Pasdaran Revolutionary Guard have also taken a number of increasingly aggressive actions against U.S. Navy ships, and it seems apparent that Iran is actively testing the limits of Western rules of engagement in the region.
The Iraqi Navy is expected to more than double in size over the next few years, from a force of roughly 1,000 personnel to as many as 2,500. From its major base at Umm Qasr, the Iraqi Navy is looking to operate as many as 21 offshore patrol vessels and 26 smaller patrol boats. Some of the ships will be built in Italy, while others will be shipped from any number of as-yet-unnamed countries.
Israel has continued to express strong interest in the U.S. Littoral Combat Ship program and parts of the U.S. Coast Guard Deepwater program, though as costs continues to rise astronomically on each of these projects Israel is understandably concerned. Meanwhile, work continues in Germany on two new Dolphin-class submarines for Israel, with delivery of the first unit planned for 2012.
During June 2007, Germany donated two patrol boats to Lebanon as that nation attempts to exert better control over its coastal waters. The recently transferred boats, one measuring 20 meters and a second 35-meters, had previously served with the Bremen city police force. They have been renamed Aamchit and Naquora.
Libya recently established a coast guard with duties that include search-and-rescue, law enforcement, and coastal patrol operations. Having worked this past year to outfit the young service, four 120-ton 30-meter patrol boats were active by the end of 2007, and six additional units are planned in the near future. Libya is also shopping for two new Kilo-class submarines with a hoped for delivery around 2012.
In 2007 Morocco ordered a single Franco-Italian FREMM frigate, becoming the project's first export customer. The warship is to be built in Lorient, France, for delivery by 2013.
Major Nigerian naval exercises took place off that nation's coast during January 2007 in an effort to practice protection of a major shipping access point for the export of crude oil. The exercises included 4 helicopters and 13 Nigerian ships, a number of which were previously thought inoperable.
In January 2007 Oman contracted Vosper-Thornycroft to build three 98.5-meter oceangoing patrol vessels. The first of the ships, named the Khareef, is expected in service during 2010, while the remaining two units are planned for a 2012 delivery to Oman.
Qatar is looking to replace its French Combattante III-class guided-missile patrol craft and Vita-class missile craft in the near future. Though the Vita boats in particular are still quite young, both classes are said to suffer from intensive maintenance requirements, and an announcement on their replacement is expected late in 2008.
South Africa's maritime forces have made great strides in recent years, and four Meko A-200SAN (Valour-class) frigates have now been delivered, though no decision has yet been made on exercising the option for a fifth unit. Two of three Type 209/1400 submarines are now operational with the South African fleet and, following extensive sea trials, the third unit of the class will be fully operational in 2008. A requirement has also recently been identified for 15 additional light patrol craft for use in riverine patrol duties throughout South Africa.
As with Iran, Syria is looking to fit a number of its fast attack craft with variants of Chinese antiship missiles. Recent overtures have also been made by Syria to purchase Russian S-300 surface-to-air missiles to better protect its principle naval base at Tartus.
In the United Arab Emirates, work continues on the Baynunah-class guided-missile patrol combatants, and in June 2007 Raytheon signed a contract to supply the class with Mk 49 Rolling Airframe Missile systems. The missiles were not originally planned for the class, but will now be carried atop the vessels' helicopter hanger. In February 2007, the UAE Navy took delivery of the first of four new 26-meter fast supply vessels. The 25-meter craft, designed by Sweden's SwedeShip Marine, are intended to operate as an amphibious landing craft and have been built to deliver up to 42 troops directly onto a beachhead via the vessel's hydraulically operated bow ramp.
Yemen's maritime forces are making an earnest effort to improve coastal security in the near future by investing significant resources in a network of coastal surveillance and sensor systems while working to set up an integrated vessel traffic management system. That system will also aid Yemeni Coast Guard operations and is based on a similar, albeit larger version, now in service along the Italian coast.
Americas
On 22 April 2007, Argentina's 12,000-ton Antarctic support ship and icebreaker Almirante Irizar suffered a serious fire in her generator room while returning from a deployment. A foreign icebreaker has been contracted to fulfill her role while Almirante Irizar is under renovation through 2009. Later in 2007 plans were announced under the Patrullero Oceánico Multipropósito (POM) program for the local production of five offshore patrol vessels. Work on the ships is scheduled to start later this year. The planned transfer of two Ouragan-class dock landing ships from France, thought all but certain to occur as recently as 2007, have been called off due to hazardous material disposal problems on board the French ships.
With the help of a U.S. military aid package, the Barbados Coast Guard has undergone a number of major improvements in 2007. Willoughby Fort in Bridgetown, home base for the service since 1982, was formally decommissioned and replaced by Pelican, the new Barbados Coast Guard headquarters at St. Michael. A new 42-meter patrol ship, Leonard C. Banfield, entered Coast Guard service and will soon be augmented by sister ship Rudyard Lewis and a third ship of the class. Three 40-foot fast patrol boats are planned for the fleet, and personnel numbers are expected to increase 150 percent over the next several years.
Brazil is in the process of drawing up a new defense doctrine, and projects high on the priority list include upgrades to P-3 maritime patrol aircraft, Niteroi-class frigates, and Type 209 submarines. During December 2007 Brazil accepted the ex-Sir Galahad, a former British Royal Fleet Auxiliary vessel into service and renamed the ship Garcia d'Ávila. There has even been talk in the media that Brazil is looking with interest at purchasing a nuclear-powered attack submarine from France, though few details have yet emerged on the subject.
Early in 2007 funding shortages forced the Canadian Navy to scale back some of its NATO exercises, though as the year wore on, a number of important programs continued to mature. Throughout this past year Canada took delivery of new Orca-class training and patrol vessels, and five of the class were delivered through late 2007, with three additional units planned. Canada also made the decision to proceed with construction of up to eight ice-strengthened offshore patrol vessels, deciding against the option to build pure icebreakers as they made less sense from a financial and military perspective.
Though the Canadian submarine Corner Brook was able to take part in a number of naval exercises during 2007, sister submarines Victoria and Windsor remained in extended dry dock. Submarine Chicoutimi, which suffered a severe fire in 2004, is unlikely to return to service due to the high cost of repairs and has reportedly been stricken as a source for spare parts.
Work also continues slowly on the 28,000-ton Joint Support Ship program, with additional decisions expected in 2008. Three of the class are planned to serve replenishment and transport duties beginning in 2016, and a total buy of eight ships is possible. A number of new "mid-shore patrol vessels" and "fisheries research vessels" have been planned for the Canadian Coast Guard since 2006, though budget shortfalls have left the certainty of these programs in question.
Both of Chile's new Scorpene-class attack submarines were fully operational by 2007, though a decision has been made to forgo upgrades to the Chilean P-3 Orion patrol fleet in favor of replacing the aircraft with a newer design. The first of two patrol ships for Chile's Coast Guard was launched in June 2007, with the vessel due to enter service later in 2008.
Colombia is working to undertake a major modernization of its defense forces, and planned maritime improvements include overhauls to its German-designed FS 1500-class frigates and Type-209/1200 submarines. In October 2007, Colombia received the U.S. Coast Guard's last Balsam-class buoy tender. Originally commissioned in 1943, the retired buoy tender, ex-Gentian, has been renamed San Andres.
Mexican naval leadership is working to position its service as an organization poised to fight terrorism and organized crime, and to conduct maritime law enforcement. New procurement programs for the service include 12 interceptor patrol vessels, 6 ocean patrol vessels, 6 maritime helicopters, and 10 maritime patrol aircraft. Rumored plans to acquire Russian Su-27 Flanker fighters for the naval aviation arm of the fleet have apparently been called off.
VT Shipbuilding Group was awarded an April 2007 contract to build three offshore patrol vessels for Trinidad and Tobago. The project, to be completed in 2009, includes construction of three 90-meter ships displacing approximately 2,000 tons each, to be used for maritime law enforcement and economic exclusion zone patrol duties.
This past year the United States unveiled a new maritime strategy for the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard. The strategy, officially titled A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower, places tremendous effort on international cooperation and builds on the Global Maritime Partnership Initiative (GMPI), known popularly as the 1,000-Ship Navy. Though criticized by some as ignoring the war on terrorism and failing to specifically name which countries pose threats to our maritime security, the strategy purposefully provides a broad scope, focusing on collective security and the prevention of future hostilities through trust and cooperation.
The goal of maintaining a force capable of meeting tomorrow's U.S. Navy's requirements can be found in the plan to build a 313-ship Navy for the future. Priorities as part of this shipbuilding plan include a number of important surface, submarine, and aviation projects. Initial construction on elements of the Navy's first Gerald R. Ford-class aircraft carrier began in 2007, though the keel laying is still roughly a year away. Work will continue on the carrier until delivered in the 2015 timeframe. Three units of the Ford class are currently planned, and cost for each carrier is estimated to be around $13 billion. Work is now coming to a finish on the Navy's tenth and final Nimitz-class carrier, the George H. W. Bush (CVN-77), with delivery planned for late 2008.
The Littoral Combat Ship project, currently divided into separate Freedom- and Independence-class prototype designs, has been plagued with cost overruns and concerns over mismanagement. By the time 2007 came to a close, the third and fourth prototype units of the class had been canceled, and the Navy and shipbuilders were working to pick up the pieces in an effort to salvage a program that was envisioned as a low cost alternative but instead has seen costs skyrocket out of control. Eventually a total of 55 littoral combat ships are planned for delivery during the next 25 years.
The DDG-1000 Zumwalt-class destroyer program is ramping its way up for production, and the first of the class is to be built at General Dynamics' Bath Iron Works in Maine, while the second unit is to be built by Northrop Grumman's Ingalls shipyard in Mississippi. Published reports estimate the cost of these two vessels at $3.5 billion a piece, with deliveries expected to begin around 2012. Arleigh Burke-class destroyers continue in production and the last of the class, DDG-112, is expected in service around 2011. As tensions are likely to remain high in the Middle East and Asia for some time to come, the ballistic-missile defense role for the Navy's fleet of Aegis warships will likely increase in significance as tests of the system appear to be achieving growing degrees of success.
Work continues on the nine-ship San Antonio-class dock landing ships being built at Northrop Grumman's Avondale shipyard in Louisiana. The first three units of the class have been delivered, and six more are under construction for delivery by 2012. Four LHA-6 class amphibious assault ships are also expected to enter service beginning around 2013, to replace the remaining Tarawa-class LHAs. The Lewis and Clark-class support ship program has also been enlarged from 9 to 14 units, and the fourth vessel Richard E. Byrd (T-AKE-4) was delivered in November 2007.
October 2007 saw the first deployment in decades of a U.S. Navy nuclear-powered cruise-missile submarine (SSGN) as the recently converted USS Ohio (SSGN-726) sailed on her first mission. All four submarines of the transformed class, capable of carrying out special operations and intelligence collection missions, will likely remain in the Fleet through at least 2025. With three Virginia-class submarines now in service and the fourth due for commissioning in May 2008, submariners hope the class will eventually reach its planned goal of 30 boats as the new class replaces older units of the Los Angeles class.
Naval and Marine Corps aviation has seen a number of firsts this past year. In the fall, ten Marine Corps MV-22B Osprey aircraft sailed on board the USS Wasp (LHD-1) on their way to conduct combat operations in Iraq's Anbar province. As of late January 2008, the aircraft have flown over 2,000 hours and achieved a mission capable availability rate of 68 percent. Other aviation milestones in 2007 include the first flight of the improved E-2D Hawkeye, delivery of the first EA-18G Growler, and establishment of the first MH-60R helicopter squadron, HSM-71.
The U.S. Coast Guard is working desperately to untangle the mess created by mismanagement and technical design flaws on its massive recapitalization effort know as the Integrated Deepwater System. In April of 2007 the service moved to assume control of integration for the project, and there appears to be an ongoing and thorough self-examination as to how a program saw costs rise from an estimated $17 billion in 2002 to $24 billion just three years later. Unfortunately the ramifications resulting from Deepwater's program mismanagement divert vital money and attention from the otherwise stellar work being done around the world on a daily basis by the Coast Guard.
Uruguay recently purchased two Commandant Riviere-type frigates from Portugal. The ships, built in the late 1960s, were transferred in late 2007 and will be fully integrated into the Uruguayan fleet during 2008. The vessels replace two older units of the same class that entered service with Uruguay in the early 1990s.
There seems to be little chance of any change in rhetoric or vitriol aimed at the United States government from Venezuela's President Hugo Chavez, and South American neighbors have just cause for concern as oil-rich Venezuela continues to beef up its military muscle. Work continues on four new patrol craft in addition to four frigates built by Navantia in Spain, deliveries of which are expected to begin within the next two years. Sixty-six small patrol boats were also recently ordered from Spanish shipyard Rodman Polyships, and Venezuela is said to be nearing finalization for orders of up to five Kilo-class and four Amur-class Russian submarines.