Oceanography is the study of the sea. It integrates the marine applications of geography, geology, physics, chemistry, and biology and involves astronomy and meteorology. In the broadest sense, any science becomes part of oceanography when it comes under the influence of the sea. The branch of oceanography most familiar to naval officers is hydrography, which is the science of measurement, description, and mapping of the surface waters of the earth, with particular emphasis on the navigational aspects of this information.
The common factor among the sciences involved in oceanography is that much of the work must be done at sea. Marine physicists study the physical properties of the oceans. This involves measurements of temperature, salinity, density, and energy propagation. It includes studies of the reflection, refraction, and scattering of sound in the ocean. Physical oceanographers conduct research on large- scale water movements, on small-scale effects of turbulence, and on the exchange of heat between the ocean and the atmosphere.
Geophysicists study the geology of the oceans. This research includes investigations of bottom properties, of sediments, and of the underlying structures of the earth. Considerable differences exist between the properties of shallow and deep waters, particularly as they affect underwater sound propagation. Geophysicists also study the anomalies of magnetic and gravitational fields which are associated with distinctive features of bottom topography.
Marine chemists investigate the composition of sea water as well as the physical effects of its many components. Fish, marine mammals, and crustaceans are studied by marine biologists to learn their habits and characteristics and to determine their distribution and movements. Geographers study the differences which exist in the various strategic areas with particular reference to the variations which appear in the other sciences. Climatologists study the effects of the atmosphere on the oceans and vice versa.
At the present time, as supported by the Navy, this research is done by a variety of scientists attached to several laboratories and universities. Some work is done on an individual basis, but much is done by teams under the leadership of a senior scientist. About a dozen seagoing research ships are used. Except for three ships (2 ARS, 1 AVP) recently taken out of the Reserve Fleet for this purpose, all are small (less than 600 registered tons), limited in equipment and facilities, and unable to operate effectively in all geographical areas and weather conditions desired. The data obtained at sea are brought back to the laboratories ashore for painstaking analysis and evaluation. It is often difficult to evaluate fully the results of one summer’s cruise in time to plan for the next. Indeed, the very existence of a research program the next year depends upon renewal of annual contracts, which have been known to suffer severe fluctuations.
In spite of the hardships involved, of the limited facilities and small numbers of scientists engaged, the results of the Navy-supported program of research at sea have been significant. Greatly increased knowledge of the characteristics of the oceans and their inhabitants has been obtained. Perhaps the most significant result is the appreciation of how much remains to be learned.
It seems safe to assume that the Navy will be responsible for control of the oceans, as long as the ability to exercise such control is important to national policy. In order to exercise effective control, adequate understanding of the environment must be obtained. This can only be done by increasing our knowledge of the oceans, which should increase our capability to exploit their most favorable characteristics and avoid the effects of those properties which hinder naval operations. We know that the oceans are the same for us as for potential enemy forces. We should recognize that a distinct advantage in conducting operations in this medium will be enjoyed by the side which understands it the better.
Historical Illustrations
A few examples from history may illustrate how a knowledge of the oceanic environment has affected the course of naval warfare.
When Greece was invaded by the Persians under Xerxes in 480 B.C. and Athens was captured, the defeat of the Greek armies left only the fleet to prevent complete conquest. Themistocles showed shrewd appreciation of the effects of the nautical surroundings by placing his smaller and less numerous ships in position so that the Persians had to maneuver through restricted waters into an adverse wind and attack with only part of their forces at one time. The defeat of the Persian fleet saved Greece.
The English took advantage of the weather- gage as early as 1217 A.D., when the Governor of Dover Castle led a fleet from the Cinque Ports against the French. With the wind behind them, the attackers made effective use of quick lime in the defenders’ eyes.
In the classic Battle of Coronel in World War I, Admiral von Spee used his understanding of the effects of his natural surroundings to choose a course which forced the British squadron to take the heavy seas on their engaged bows, putting lower deck guns out of action and resulting in their almost complete destruction.
In World War II the Germans took advantage of their knowledge of oceanic and meteorological conditions to move the cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau safely through the English Channel in the face of naval and aerial superiority. In the same war, the U. S. Navy suffered a severe blow from the Philippine Sea typhoon of December, 1944, partly due to lack of meteorological information and partly due to an inadequate appreciation of the environmental factors involved in tropical storms.
On the other hand, increased knowledge of the acoustic properties of the ocean and its bottom, and of its hydrodynamic characteristics, led to more effective U. S. submarine operations. The success of many amphibious landings of World War II can be traced to the work of several U. S. oceanographers who used their knowledge of waves and swells to develop a method of prediction of beach landing conditions based on aerial photographic interpretation.
Finally, in the Korean War, the major U. N. amphibious landing at Inchon could not have been planned or accomplished without detailed understanding of the oceanography involved. Knowledge of the existence of twenty-seven foot tides and nine-knot tidal currents had to be available before the operation, in order to ensure successful timing.
Modern Warfare Considerations
To relate the effects of oceanography to modern naval warfare, let us consider the various methods by which such warfare may be conducted. The very existence of surface ships in the future depends upon their ability to defend themselves against devastating attacks from aircraft and missiles flying at several hundred knots. Accuracy of anti-aircraft and anti-missile missiles is affected by stability of the launching platform, which in turn is controlled by hull design and stabilizer performance. Design of hulls and stabilizers depends upon knowledge of the forces affecting ship motion, their strengths and periodic variations. Oceanographers provide the sources of this information with their studies of ocean waves and swells.
The effectiveness of minefields is greatly enhanced when they contain mines actuated by various physical effects. Present mines are influenced by the pressure waves created by ship passage and by the acoustic and magnetic fields produced by ships. To be operationally effective, however, the influences of the ship must be detectable in the presence of similar influences of a varying nature produced by the environment. Physical oceanographers provide the needed information on the magnetic properties of the bottom, on the acoustical properties of the area, on the effects of pressure variations caused by sea, swell, and tidal currents and on the properties of water turbulence and bottom sediments which affect the placement of the mines.
For effective minesweeping, this information is invaluable in order to counter such mines. In addition, the construction of nonmagnetic, wooden-hulled minesweepers has increased the longstanding concern of Navy men with the habits of such underwater agents as marine borers and teredo worms. All ships feel the effect of marine fouling on speed and endurance. ASW ships find their sonar performance particularly affected. Information on which to base remedial action, such as improved anti-fouling paints, is obtained through the research of marine biologists and chemists.
The effects of weather conditions on carrier operations should be well known. The relation of oceanic weather conditions to the properties of the oceans is not well understood. We do know that the process of heat transfer across the water-air interface plays an important part in the climatology of the oceans. Oceanographers and marine meteorologists are devoting intensive efforts to learn more of the processes involved. The effects of waves and swells are important to carrier design, as well as to their ability to launch and land aircraft, and to the ability of aircraft to ditch safely.
Survival at sea by those unfortunate enough to find themselves adrift may depend upon their knowledge of what the sea offers to support or destroy human life. Marine biologists and chemists have done much to increase the probability of survival through their research. Plankton soup may not be steak, but it supports life!
Undersea Warfare
Oceanography and its contributions to knowledge of the environment are more important to undersea warfare than to any other warfare area. Undersea warfare includes both prosubmarine and antisubmarine warfare and is distinguished by the fact that one protagonist is usually totally submerged in the medium. In previous wars, the conclusion of an action often found both parties in that condition.
To understand why oceanography is so important to undersea warfare, one must consider the effects of different mediums upon the capabilities of naval warfare systems. Since actions usually begin as a result of search procedures and end with weapon delivery, let us examine the effects on detection and weapon systems.
When the target or the detector operates in the three dimensions of the sea, the importance of knowledge of the oceanic environment to the success of naval missions becomes greatly magnified. As long as targets remain on the surface, detections can be made through the atmosphere, either visually or by electromagnetic radiations. Classification and identification can be handled by the same methods, and usually with a high degree of accuracy. Delivery of weapons, either surface or air-launched, is again through the atmosphere.
Knowledge of the oceans is certainly important to provide the best platforms for detection and destruction equipment, but the actual performance of the detectors and the accuracy of the weapon delivery depends upon properties of the atmosphere through which the detections are made, and through which the weapons travel. Because of the poor propagation of electro-magnetic energy in sea water, detection, classification, and identification of targets must now be accomplished primarily by use of underwater acoustics. Localization of target position for fire control purposes, particularly at long range, must also be done acoustically. Some of the weapons used in undersea warfare depend upon underwater acoustics for guidance to the target. The effectiveness of nuclear weapons in undersea warfare is related to the propagation of seismic-frequency pressure waves in the water, which obey the same physical laws as do acoustic-frequency pressure waves.
To obtain the best possible results in undersea warfare operations, it is clearly necessary to use the optimum equipment in the optimum manner. The design of such equipment however, depends upon complete understanding of the effects of the environment on its performance. As more is learned about the oceans, designs are improved to exploit favorable characteristics and to avoid the effects of troublesome qualities. It is generally agreed that the best equipment can provide little assistance unless it is maintained and used by competent personnel. It must also be appreciated that the ability of the operators will increase as their understanding of the effects of the medium on their equipment improves. This has been demonstrated many times by experienced sonarmen of all forces. How much more effectiveness could be obtained if the operators and the officers whose decisions are based on their information had access to important environmental data and understood its relationship to the performance of their undersea warfare weapon systems.
Of critical importance to undersea warfare operations are such physical characteristics of the oceans as vertical and horizontal salinity and thermal gradients; bottom topography, including salient features, geologic compositions and slopes; distribution and characteristics of marine life, particularly those which affect sonar performance. Not only should naval officers be aware of the existence of these properties, they should know how to recognize them, how to obtain the required information about them at the scene of action, and they should understand their effects on undersea warfare operations.
What Should the Navy Do?
If we accept the proposition that oceanographic research is important to the Navy, what should be done about it? Practical- minded naval officers often find difficulty in connecting basic research programs with fleet capabilities. This makes them prone to believe that all basic research should be supported by such agencies as the National Science Foundation. Admittedly, the connection often requires considerable imagination, but for the good of the Navy, we should not restrict our imaginative powers only to subjects with which we are familiar. Progress is based on obtaining new knowledge, and this means probing the unknown. If a thing is truly unknown, its relations to such things as warfare capabilities must also be unknown. This was the situation that existed when the atom was first split in Europe, and when the scientists at the Naval Research Laboratory first received electromagnetic energy reflected from a target. The effects of these research efforts on warfare are now well recognized. This situation surely exists in the fields of science which are included in oceanographic research. With the proper effort, great advances may well be made in related warfare capabilities.
Increased knowledge in these areas of science can only be gained by research at sea. In order to ensure that the needs of the Navy for operationally useful information are met, it is imperative that an adequate amount of this research be done with the support and guidance of experienced naval officers. They can guide the scientists’ efforts toward problems of operational importance and can be quick to initiate developments based on significant results. To be most effective, this collaboration should be in the form of assisting the scientists involved to educate themselves on problems important to present and future naval operations. It should include information on related research, operational developments, and sea experience in appropriate naval ships. They should then be allowed to plan and conduct their scientific research with maximum assistance and minimum interference. True research depends upon the ability and integrity of the scientists. It is hampered by excessive administrative control. On the other hand, the urgency of naval problems often creates pressure for quick results. This apparent dilemma can only be solved by stimulating, but not suffocating, the scientists with naval guidance.
While financial and administrative support of this research by the Navy is necessary, the program will suffer without adequate support from the Fleet. This support can be provided in several ways. Assignment of ships to research projects is perhaps the most immediate in importance. The efficiency of these ships for this purpose is directly related to the amount of interest shown by the ship’s company, and by their efforts to appreciate the scientist’s problems and his lack of familiarity with naval procedures.
Another way in which the Fleet can assist the program is in applying true scientific method to whatever experimental or exploratory work that Fleet units may attempt. This will increase the value to the scientific program of new knowledge gained. Perhaps the best way to attain this result is for Fleet and scientific personnel to work closely together on specific problems. Experience has shown that the collaboration of military men and scientists can be productive in solving military problems. Each has something of value to contribute. The military man provides a wide breadth of knowledge of the problem and of the general factors involved. The scientist knows how to attack the problem to gain new knowledge. Together they are able to devise techniques to exploit the knowledge gained. The military man can evaluate such techniques from an operational viewpoint and the scientist from a technical viewpoint. Together they can be a potent team.
But what of the naval officer whose duties do not bring him into contact with the oceanographic research program? He is the consumer of whatever is produced, be it equipment or techniques. He is trained to learn the characteristics and capabilities of his equipment, and to become proficient in the procedures involved in new techniques. If he understands that his proficiency in these matters is directly related to his knowledge of the environment in which he must use them, he will surely make every effort to increase that knowledge. His efforts should include professional reading and discussions on all aspects of oceanography, as well as personal observations. Oceanographic scientists strive to go to sea to do research. The naval officer spends much of his time exactly where they would like to be. With a good fund of knowledge about the oceans, personal observation will do much to increase his understanding of their effects on naval operations.
Summary
We have observed that oceanography includes many scientific disciplines which involve research at sea. The results of such research, conducted under Navy sponsorship and with the active collaboration of experienced naval officers, have played an important part in the development of new equipments and techniques for naval warfare. Knowledge of the oceanic environment and its effects has been important to naval commanders in the past. It will not diminish in importance in the future, particularly in the three-dimensional field of undersea warfare. Oceanographic research has been shown to be worthy of the naval officer’s interest, not just as a passive observer, but as an active participant. Whether he be in a policy-making position, a technical planning and administrative billet, or at sea in a ship, it is within his power to assist the Navy to obtain the information on the oceanic environment which is so vitally needed to advance our naval warfare capabilities.