AUSTRIA
Vessels Building.—Nothing is known about the ships now building in Austria.
FRANCE
Vessels Building.—Nothing is known about the ships now building in France.
GERMANY
Vessels Building.—Nothing is known about the ships now building in Germany. The following from the Army and Navy Gazette gives an idea of British opinion on German ship construction:
"There is some uncertainty as to whether the new ship which the Germans are reported to have launched is a battleship or a battle cruiser. It is evidently one of two ships of the 1914 program, of which the battleship was to replace the Kaiser Friedrich 111 and the battle cruiser the Victoria Luise. If so, the launch is rather belated than otherwise. Two years is a long time for a man-of-war to be on the building-slip nowadays. The average time occupied by the twenty-odd dreadnoughts which Germany put afloat before the war broke out was only some 15 months. If, therefore, the Bayern is not a new ship altogether, or does not belong to a later program, the circumstance seems to point to the shipbuilding resources of Germany having been devoted in the main, as already suggested in these columns, to the construction of torpedo craft and submarines during the past two years. Only three vessels of the larger types have taken the water, so far as is known, since the war began, the battleships Erstaz-Worth and T, of which one was named the Wilhelm II, and flew the flag of Admiral Scheer in the Jutland battle, and the battle cruiser Hindenburg, and all of these were under construction before the outbreak of hostilities. Any new departures to which the German shipbuilders and marine engineers have turned their attention must, therefore, concern the lighter craft of the fleet. Apart from the large number of submarines which have been turned out, there are destroyers of new and improved types, such as those which carried out the Channel raid last month, and those which penetrated into the Gulf of Finland on November 10. A number of small torpedo-boats have also been built for patrol duties, and have made the raids from Zeebrugge, upon the Anglo-Dutch steamship and mail traffic. Bearing in mind the nature of the strategy imposed upon them when the British fleet seized the initiative at the beginning of the war, it was natural for the Germans to turn their attention to types of warcraft most suitable for the war of attrition. Moreover, there is evidence that they did not expect the campaign to last long enough to give them time to build big ships. But submarines, minelayers, destroyers and vedette-boats for outpost duties they could provide, and apparently have done. It does not follow, of course, that we need not trouble to continue battleship building. We should increase our battle strength as much as possible, not only because the superior fleet has always, in the exercise of its superiority, to accept a greater margin of risk, but to increase the certainty of delivering a knock-out blow when 'the day' comes."
GREAT BRITAIN
Vessels Building.— Nothing is known about the ships now building in Great Britain.
Changes in Naval Command.—Admiral Sir John R. Jellicoe, commander of the British fleet, is appointed First Sea Lord of the Admiralty, being succeeded in command of the Grand Fleet by Vice Admiral Sir David Beatty, who commanded the British battle cruiser squadron in the Jutland naval battle. Admiral Sir Henry B. Jackson, the present First Sea Lord, has been appointed president of the Royal Naval College at Greenwich.
The announcement of the change in command of the British Grand Fleet was made this afternoon in the House of Commons by Mr. A. J. Balfour, First Lord of the Admiralty. Mr. Balfour said there would be consequential changes also in the Board of Admiralty.
The decision involving the appointments of Admirals Jellicoe, Beatty and Jackson was taken some time ago. Mr. Balfour said, but for military reasons the announcement was delayed.
On being asked whether the changes in the Admiralty meant other changes in higher commands. Mr. Balfour replied that undoubtedly there would be changes, which would be announced in the ordinary course.
The changes will be greeted enthusiastically by the country. They were not unexpected, as recently there has been a demand for an infusion of new life on the Board of the Sea Lords at Whitehall. The case, as presented by the critics, was that none of the Sea Lords had had active service afloat during this war, that more than two years of warfare had brought about radical changes in methods and that the active direction of the fleets by the Admiralty should be in the hands of officers who had participated in and worked out the latest style of operations.
Since the government apparently recognized the force of these criticisms. Admiral Jellicoe's appointment as First Sea Lord is the logical result.
Sir David Beatty's promotion to the command of the Grand Fleet gives the government's answer to the criticisms, mostly from abroad, that he showed rashness in the way he threw his battle cruiser squadron into the Jutland fight.
Admiral Sir Henry B. Jackson obtains an honorable and comfortable post. Thus four important figures formerly in control of the navy have passed from Whitehall since the war began. These are Prince Louis of Battenberg, Lord Fisher and Admiral Jackson, all of whom were First Sea Lords, and Colonel Winston Spencer Churchill, who was First Lord of the Admiralty through it all, although some of the same newspapers which called for Colonel Churchill's retirement have been turning their guns upon him, but from a different angle. They considered Colonel Churchill too impetuous and disposed to interfere with matters of strategy, while they considered Mr. Balfour too slow and conservative.
The changes in the British Admiralty have been greeted with jubilation by the German newspapers, according to an Amsterdam despatch to Reuter's. The Cologne Lokalanseiger declares that Admiral Jellicoe's removal from the fleet is degradation for losing the battle of Jutland, and that the inefficiency of the fleet is shown by the fact that Prussian ships attacked the east coast of England and never saw anything of British ships.—New York Herald.
Permanent Force of 20,000 British Aeros Asked.—Lord Montagu of Beaulieu, speaking recently at Edinburgh, Scotland, on aircraft policy, said that when peace came the British air service must be the last to be reduced. A naval invasion might not come, but by means of 100 airships it might come on a scale infinitely larger, which it would need all the British aircraft forces to repel. Of 2000 miles of coastline, at least 1000 would have to be defended by aircraft. If in the country a permanent force of 20,000 aeroplanes existed, the cost would not be more than $75,000,000.
He also said that England had reached the position when the Air Board should be given control at least of the supply side, and there should be one united air service for the country. He looked forward to an imperial air service. England should not only be strong and well armed, but the air service must take front rank in protecting the empire.—Aviation, 1/12.
Naval Khaki.—Khaki is now adopted, with certain reservation, as an alternative "rig" for naval officers. The decision of the Admiralty in this respect, just announced, is not surprising, for it merely extends to general use what has been already done for some time past in certain branches of the naval forces. Thus officers in the Royal Naval Division have, so far as we are aware, been khaki-clad from the first; but this force is now reckoned as a purely military one. By the way, it was stated in the original announcement of Mr. Churchill concerning this division that the uniform of the two naval brigades would be " naval uniform executed in khaki," but this idea was apparently modified a good deal, and those who expected to see the wide trousers and the jumper in the well-known mud-colored material were disappointed. The new regulations only provide for the wearing of khaki uniform by officers. It is left to the discretion of the senior officer to order whether it shall be worn instead of the ordinary blue or white uniform, and, of course, it will only be used for service on shore—there would be no apparent object served by ordering it for wear afloat. As in the case of officers of the Royal Naval Division, the jacket is to be of the same pattern, except as regards distinction marks and buttons, as that of the military service dress, with Sam Browne belt, etc. Presumably the new rule should prove of advantage to officers employed in the transport service at the various ports, and in similar appointments where they are constantly being brought into touch with the military forces.—Army and Navy Gazette.
Lower Deck Promotions.—It is gratifying to know that as many as 265 warrant officers, petty officers, and men of the Royal Navy and Royal Marines have been promoted to commissioned rank, or have been noted or otherwise put in the way of obtaining such rank, since the outbreak of war. This was the information given by the Civil Lord of the Admiralty on October 18, and we agree with Lord Beresford, who had asked the question which elicited the official figures, that it is very satisfactory that the lower deck has received the recognition which has been so long delayed. The Earl of Lytton said that 17 commissioned warrant officers of the navy, and two, warrant officers of the Royal Marines, had been promoted to commissioned rank for services in action and meritorious war service; 14 commissioned warrant and warrant officers had been noted for early promotion to commissions for services in action; and 232 warrant and petty officers had been promoted to the rank of mate since the war began. This state of affairs is very different to that which obtained during past wars. According to the Naval Warrant Officers' Manual, although an Order in Council was made in 1853 authorizing the promotion of warrant officers to commissioned rank for "acts of gallantry and daring in the service," it was not until 1887 that the first advancements under this rule were made, when Chief Boatswain J. Webber and Gunner R. A. Cathie were promoted lieutenants for their services before the enemy. For some time these were the only two officers in the navy who had won their commissions by good service on the lower deck, but since the beginning of the new century the avenue to the quarter-deck has been considerably widened, especially in 1903, when among the many excellent reforms for which Lord Fisher was responsible as Second Sea Lord was the establishment of the rank of lieutenant for 4 per cent of the commissioned warrant officers of all branches, up to a maximum of 100. There were other concessions in following years, until in 1912 came the institution of the "mate" scheme. Referring again to the figures given by Lord Lytton, it would be interesting and inspiring to have a detailed record of the services of the 265 warrant officers, petty officers, and men referred to. Several of them, no doubt, came to the front during the Jutland battle, as the despatches and awards show. On October 25, in a miscellaneous Gazette, there were the names of four petty officers promoted to warrant rank in recognition of their services in the battle.—Army and Navy Gazette.
HOLLAND
Vessels Building
Name |
Displacement |
Speed |
Armament |
Builders |
Remarks |
Cruisers |
? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
… |
6000 |
30 |
10 6-in. |
Amsterdam |
? |
… |
6000 |
30 |
10 6-in. |
Flushing |
? |
Note.—Four submarines are building, three at Rotterdam and one at Flushing, of 836 tons displacement and a surface speed of 17 ½ knots. The two cruisers were to be built in Holland by Krupp, and it is not known whether or not construction is proceeding.
The budget for 1017 provides for the construction of three more submarines and a mine layer.
ITALY
Vessels Building
Name |
Displacement |
Speed |
Armament |
Builders |
Remarks |
Battleships |
? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
Carraciolo |
30,000 |
25 |
8 15-in., 16 6-in. |
… |
To be completed in 1917 |
Marcantonio-Colonna |
30,000 |
25 |
Same |
… |
To be completed in 1917 |
Cristofaro-Colombo |
30,000 |
25 |
Same |
… |
To be completed in 1917 |
Francesco-Marosini |
30,000 |
25 |
Same |
… |
To be completed in 1917 |
Note. —In July, 1914, approximately 15 destroyers, two torpedo-boats, and eight submarines were building.
It is probable that the building program has been accelerated and increased since the outbreak of the war.
JAPAN
Vessels Building
Name |
Displacement |
Speed |
Armament |
Builders |
Remarks |
Battleships |
? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
Ise |
30,800 |
22.5 |
… |
Kawasaki |
Launched 11-11-16 |
Huga |
30,800 |
22.5 |
… |
Mitsubishi |
? |
Nagato |
32,000 |
24.0 |
12 15-in. (?) |
Kure Arsenal |
? |
Note.—On April 1, 1916, Japan had nine destroyers under construction.
The Ise.—The Ise was launched on November 11. Commenting on this event the Army and Naval Gazette says: "The Japanese ship is apparently the third of the Fuso class, of which the nameship was launched at Kure on March 28, 1914, and the Yamashiro at Yokosuka on November 28, 1915. A fourth vessel is under construction at Nagasaki, the Huga. When completed the four battleships will form a very fine and powerful division of the Japanese war fleet. They have a displacement of 31,000 tons, a main armament of 12 14-inch guns, and a speed of 22 ½ to 23 knots. These are significant figures, which four years ago would have seemed startling, but which are now quite normal, as Russia and the United States, at least, have ships of about the same size in their navies."
Submarine Lost.—The Japanese submarine No. 4 while returning from the ceremonies incident to the launching of the Ise was destroyed in the Inland Sea by a gasoline explosion with the loss of two men and injury of six officers and eight men. According to Jayne No. 4 was one of the five Holland boats imported from America at the time of the Russian war; these were of 125 tons displacement.
RUSSIA
Vessels Building.—Nothing is known about the ships now building in Russia.
SPAIN
Vessels Building.—There are building or projected three 15,000-ton battleships, four 5600-ton cruisers, six destroyers, and 28 submarines.
UNITED STATES
New Construction.—Navy Department estimates for 1917 include three battleships of 40,000 tons displacement, mounting 12 16", 50-caliber guns; one battle cruiser, three scouts, 15 destroyers, one destroyer tender, and one submarine tender. The New York Herald says that the 40,000-ton battleship is recommended by the General Board, and that Congress will probably authorize this type. Also that the three remaining battleships of the three-year program will be of the same displacement and will be authorized in 1918.
United States Vessels Building and Authorized
Name |
Displacement |
Speed |
Main battery |
Where building |
% completed Dec. 1 |
Remarks |
Battleships |
? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
New Mexico |
32,000 |
21 |
12 14-in. |
New York |
55 |
? |
Mississippi |
32,000 |
21 |
12 14-in. |
Newport News |
63 |
? |
Idaho |
32,000 |
21 |
12 14-in. |
Camden |
68 |
? |
Tennessee |
32,300 |
21 |
12 14-in. |
New York |
4 |
? |
California |
32,300 |
21 |
12 14-in. |
Mare Island |
7 |
? |
Maryland |
32,600 |
21 |
8 16-in. |
Newport News |
? | ? |
Washington |
32,600 |
21 |
8 16-in. |
Camden |
? | ? |
Colorado |
32,600 |
21 |
8 16-in. |
Camden |
? | ? |
West Virginia |
32,600 |
21 |
8 16-in. |
Newport News |
? | ? |
No. 49 |
Characteristics not determined |
To be begun by July 1, 1919 |
||||
No. 50 |
Characteristics not determined |
To be begun by July 1, 1919 |
||||
No. 51 |
Characteristics not determined |
To be begun by July 1, 1919 |
||||
No. 52 |
Characteristics not determined |
To be begun by July 1, 1919 |
||||
No. 53 |
Characteristics not determined |
To be begun by July 1, 1919 |
||||
No. 54 |
Characteristics not determined |
To be begun by July 1, 1919 |
||||
Battle Cruisers |
? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
No. 1 |
35,000 |
35 |
10 14-in. |
Contracts not let |
… |
Bids under consideration |
No. 2 |
35,000 |
35 |
10 14-in. |
Contracts not let |
… |
Bids under consideration |
No. 3 |
35,000 |
35 |
10 14-in. |
Contracts not let |
… |
Bids under consideration |
No. 4 |
35,000 |
35 |
10 14-in. |
Contracts not let |
… |
Bids under consideration |
No. 5 |
Characteristics not determined |
To be begun by July 1, 1919 |
||||
No. 6 |
Characteristics not determined |
To be begun by July 1, 1919 |
||||
Scout Cruisers |
? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
No. 4 |
7,100 |
35 |
8 6-in. |
Seattle |
… |
Each carries 4 aeroplanes |
No. 5 |
7,100 |
35 |
8 6-in. |
Contracts not let |
… |
Each carries 4 aeroplanes |
No. 6 |
7,100 |
35 |
8 6-in. |
Contracts not let |
… |
Each carries 4 aeroplanes |
No. 7 |
7,100 |
35 |
8 6-in. |
Contracts not let |
… |
Each carries 4 aeroplanes |
No. 8 |
Characteristics not determined |
To be begun by July 1, 1919 |
||||
No. 9 |
Characteristics not determined |
To be begun by July 1, 1919 |
||||
No. 10 |
Characteristics not determined |
To be begun by July 1, 1919 |
||||
No. 11 |
Characteristics not determined |
To be begun by July 1, 1919 |
||||
No. 12 |
Characteristics not determined |
To be begun by July 1, 1919 |
||||
No. 13 |
Characteristics not determined |
To be begun by July 1, 1919 |
||||
Destroyers |
? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
Allen |
1,071 |
30 |
4 4-in. |
Bath |
94 |
4 triple tubes |
Wilkes |
1,110 |
29.5 |
4 4-in. |
Cramp’s |
100 |
Delivered 10-11-16 |
Shaw |
1,110 |
29.5 |
4 4-in. |
Mare Island |
92 |
4 triple tubes |
Caldwell |
1,085 |
32 |
4 4-in. |
Mare Island |
33 |
4 triple tubes |
Craven |
1,085 |
32 |
4 4-in. |
Norfolk |
18 |
4 triple tubes |
Gwin |
1,123 |
30 |
4 4-in. |
Seattle |
11 |
4 triple tubes |
Conner |
1,121 |
30 |
4 4-in. |
Cramp’s |
24 |
4 triple tubes |
Stockton |
1,121 |
30 |
4 4-in. |
Cramp’s |
23 |
4 triple tubes |
Manley |
1,085 |
32 |
4 4-in. |
Bath |
43 |
4 triple tubes |
20 (Nos. 75-94) |
1,185 |
35 |
4 4-in. |
8 Fore River 6 Union Iron Works 4 Bath 2 Not ordered |
… |
4 triple tubes |
30 (Nos. 95-124) |
Characteristics not determined |
To be begun by July 1, 1919 |
||||
Gunboats |
? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
No. 21 |
1,575 |
12 |
3 4-in. |
Charleston |
… |
? |
No. 22 |
Characteristics not determined |
To be begun by July 1, 1919 |
||||
Submarines |
||||||
Building 31. Contracted for:—3 800-ton coast defence submarines, 27 smaller coast defence submarines. Authorized to be begun by July 1, 1919:—28 coast defence submarines, 9 fleet submarines. |
||||||
Vessels of the train |
||||||
Building and authorized:— -4 fuel ships -1 supply ship -2 ammunition ships -1 hospital ship -1 repair ship -2 transports -2 destroyer tenders -1 fleet submarine tender |
Ammunition Ship Plans Completed.—The Secretary of the Navy has approved the plans for an ammunition ship, the first craft of the kind ever designed for the United States Navy. She will have a displacement of 10,000 tons with a cargo of powder and shells aboard. Complete arrangements of booms and gears have been provided to permit the vessel to handle its cargo independent of outside assistance, and the powder holds have been provided with insulation and cooling facilities to insure the constant temperature necessary for the preservation of powder. Special arrangements have also been made in order that these holds may be utilized for the stowage of vegetables and other stores, in case the services of the vessel as a supply ship are needed in times of peace, when her services for carrying ammunition are not necessary. Large refrigerated spaces have also been provided for the stowage of frozen meats, to further promote the usefulness of the vessel as a supply ship for the fleet. The propelling machinery has been designed to burn either coal or fuel oil, and stowage has been provided on the vessel to give a large cruising radius on either or both kinds of fuel. The armament is for defence only.—Shipping Illustrated, 2/12.
Contracts for Ships Awarded.—Contracts have been awarded for vessels to be constructed under the 1916 program as follows:
Battleships.—Two (Colorado and Washington) to New York Shipbuilding Company for delivery within 40 months.
Two (West Virginia and Maryland) to Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company for delivery within 39 months.
Scout Cruisers.—One to Seattle Construction and Dry Dock Company for delivery within 30 months.
Bids for the three other scouts authorized were unsatisfactory and were re-advertised; the new bids will be opened January 3.
800-Ton Coast Submarines.—One to Electric Boat Company.
One to Lake Torpedo Boat Company.
One to Portsmouth Navy Yard. This is an experimental 850-ton boat with 20 knots surface speed, others of the class having but 16 knots.
Small Coast Submarines.—18 to Electric Boat Company.
Six to Lake Torpedo Boat Company.
Three to California Shipbuilding Company (Long Beach, Cal.).
Destroyers.—Eight to Fore River Shipbuilding Company.
Six to Union Iron Works.
Four to Bath Iron Works.
Two not awarded.
Bids for Battle Cruisers.—Bids for four battle cruisers were opened at Washington, December 6. The Navy Department's estimate has been that these vessels will cost about $20,433,000 each to build. There were four bidders. None of them offered to construct the vessels for a flat sum. All proposed to build the vessels on the basis of actual cost plus 10 to 15 per cent profit. The bidders were the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co., Union Iron Works, Fore River Shipbuilding Corp., and William Cramp & Sons. The Newport News Co. and Cramp each offered to build the vessels on the basis of cost, plus 10 per cent. The Newport News Co. fixed the time of construction at so months, with turbo-electric propulsion. Cramp offered to build one ship at cost, plus 10 per cent. The Union Iron Works and the Fore River each offered to build at cost, plus 15 per cent. The bids of the two last named companies were practically identical. Each offered to build one ship in 48 months. They also proposed a sliding scale by which their profits would be increased by speedy construction. The New York Shipbuilding Co. did not bid. It submitted a letter saying that its plant's capacity was taxed with navy and commercial contracts.—Shipping Illustrated 9/12.
The drawing of the accepted design for the battle cruisers published herewith is from the Scientific American, which says that the drawing is official.
Cost of the United States Navy.—The total expenditures for the United States Navy from 1794 to 1915 inclusive, reaches the great sum of $3,214,339,051. This includes ships, establishments, pay, materials, and all expenses in connection with the Navy Department. The total cost of all ships now upon the navy list, excluding the new work authorized in 1915 and the great bill of 1916, is $459,686,551.—Scientific American, 25/11.
May Sell Five Destroyers.—The United States Government contemplates selling the torpedo-boat destroyers Smith, Reid, Lamson, Fluster and Preston to a South American republic.
The destroyers are of 750 tons displacement and have proven valuable to the United States Navy. They are modern in every way, excepting that they are coal burners and are equipped to fire 18-inch torpedoes instead of 21-inch.
It was found too costly to convert these boats into oil burners and, according to reports, it was found advisable to sell them.—New York Herald, 20/11.
Large vs. Small Submarines.—Captain W. L. Rodgers, U. S. N., former president of the Naval War College at Newport, read at a meeting of the American Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, a paper dealing with the kind of submarines most suitable to the needs of the United States Navy.
"The geographic situation of the United States, with a very extended coast line, much of which is remote from possible enemies and borders great oceans," said Captain Rodgers, "is very different from that of the present combatants, who are separated by comparatively narrow waters and confront each other at relatively short ranges. The submarine is essentially a defensive arm. It finds least opportunity when it meets its enemy in the open sea with full freedom for maneuver. On the contrary, the submarine is favored when its enemy approaches a hostile shore, where his freedom of maneuver is hampered by the proximity of the coast and his advantage of speed is thereby partially counterbalanced.
"Therefore, it does not seem desirable that our navy should attempt to establish a defensive cordon of submarines far from our coasts in mid-ocean. For a line held there will be long; its distance from shore will require much time to arrive and return from station, necessitating excessive numbers of ships. The enemy has no objective in mid-ocean and will not wait there. If he is attacked in that neighborhood by submarines, he has the advantage of full opportunity to maneuver freely at high speed. On the other hand, our submarines will gain on every one of the above mentioned points if they are used for local coast defence and do not go far off shore—say not more than a day's run. They may well expect to maintain a strip of coastal waters fairly free from the enemy and available for coast navigation, as do the English at the present time.
"Thus the size and type of coast-defence submarine of about 500 tons now favored by our Navy Department seem proper and logical for American use. It is true that it is a much larger type of submarine which has obtained most press notice in the current war, but that is because the requirements of the situation were such that the areas best suited to the operations of German submarines were far from German bases. We do not foresee any strategic reasons that will require our submarines to operate so far from home. American coast defence does not appear to require the largest type of submarines. Nevertheless, the appropriation act of this year calls for three of a large size (800 tons), which will prove instructive and useful as experimental boats even if they prove to be larger and more expensive than necessary.
"There is a great desire on the part of every navy to provide submarines capable of accompanying the fleet and taking, part in general actions. For such a purpose a second type of submarine is necessary.
"Such a craft will be away from its base for a longer time than coast defence submarines, and must therefore have a larger crew and better quarters. Tactically, also, its requirements must he quite different. An automobile torpedo has a greater virtual range when it is fired to meet an approaching target than when it is fired to overtake a retreating target. Consequently, an ideal torpedo-boat, whether of the surface type or of the submarine type, should have superior speed to that of its probable opponent, in order that, however the latter turns, the torpedo-boat may assume an advantageous position ahead of the enemy before closing to discharge the torpedo. But this is a different condition to satisfy with a fleet submarine.
"The standard speed of battleships reached 21 knots some years ago, and is now on the rise once more. At present, 23 knots may be regarded as the normal speed for foreign battleships of the most recent design, and our navy should not lag behind others in this respect. An ideal fleet submarine should have both surface and submerged speeds of not less than 25 knots and a submerged radius of at least two hours at maximum speed. Unfortunately, we cannot get a quart into a pint pot, nor is such an ideal fleet submarine practicable. No submarine, even of as large size as 1,200 or 1,500 tons, can get sufficiently powerful machinery into her; first, because her hull weights must be great to withstand submergence, and. second, because she must be provided with two heavy systems of motive power, in place of one lighter one, such as surface craft have.
"In the present state of engineering we shall, therefore, be obliged to content ourselves with a surface speed approaching the cruising speed of the fleet under war conditions, or about 20 knots. The submerged speed and radius must be very moderate: sufficient only to serve as a means of passive defence by concealment, but not enough for aggressive maneuvering while submerged. The mechanical limitations thus imposed upon fleet submarines restrict very greatly the tactical freedom of the commander-in-chief who attempts to utilize submarines in a general engagement. Other component elements of the fleet are all capable of acting in mutual support of each other in aggressive attack upon the enemy. The fleet submarine, limited as it is in speed, is incapable of such cooperative attack with other types, for it cannot force itself into the fight.
"The commander who seriously relies upon his fleet submarines in a general action must place himself upon the strategic defensive and so restrict his freedom of maneuver as to make it a chief objective to draw the enemy within the pre-established area of the submarines. Tt is clear that such a limitation is a severe handicap. It is nevertheless desirable that our fleet should be accompanied by submarines for use when opportunity serves. Those now building arc abreast of present possibilities, but should be improved and developed in succeeding years as engineering progress dictates. The chief distinguishing characteristics for them are high surface speed with adequate surface endurance and habitability. High submerged speed and great submerged radius are comparatively secondary affairs unless most radical improvements are brought about in the methods of submerged propulsion, so that high submerged mobility may be obtained without undue sacrifice of surface mobility.
"The conclusion to be drawn from this study is that the Navy Department has made a judicious decision in the combination of military characteristics which it has embodied in its latest designs of submarines for service with the fleet as well as for coast defence."—N. Y. Times, 28/11.
The New Navy Dirigible "DN-1."—The navy dirigible DN-1, built by the Connecticut Aircraft Company at New Haven, Conn., was shipped recently to the Naval Aeronautical Station, Pensacola, Fla., for the final flying tests, the preliminary power plant and blower tests having been previously passed by the government inspector at the factory.
The dirigible DN-1 is of the non-rigid type, i.e., one in which the gas bag maintains its shape by the pressure of the contained gas and the gondola is carried entirely by a suspension fastened to the bag itself. Its overall dimensions are: length 175 feet, height 50 feet, and beam 35 feet. The balloon carries a volume of 115,000 cubic feet of hydrogen gas, which gives a total lift, less space used by the ballonets, of approximately 7000 pounds, based on the lift of its hydrogen gas at .068 pounds per cubic foot.
There are two ballonets for navigating purposes, one in the rear, with a volume of 8000 cubic feet, and one forward, with a volume of 7000 cubic feet. These ballonets serve both to navigate the airship and to assist in maintaining its shape, which at different altitudes is apt to be largely affected by temperature changes, causing expansion and contraction.
The gondola, or car, of the dirigible is fastened to the bag by means of a suspension composed of numerous ropes and cables, fastened in turn to the belly bands of the bag. This suspension is capable of great lifting strength and is made so as to afford the greatest efficiency combined with the least possible strain on any portion of the bag's surface, allowing for an even distribution of weight on all parts of the belly band.
In the car itself are the various units of machinery necessary to operate the dirigible. These are composed of:
First. The power plant, which is an 8-cylinder Sturtevant 140-horsepower engine at 2100 revolutions per minute.
Second. The transmission, composed of the lower gear case, through which the power is delivered by means of an upright shaft into the two cross shafts arranged overhead that drive the two 4-bladed propellers.
Third. The blower is located directly over the engine and is driven by a belt off the main shaft drive. The blower is used to keep the ballonets inflated and is operated by signal from the pilot to engineer, who in turn shifts the T-piece levers that open and close the big air valves leading from the blower into the two metal cross tubes called the T-piece.
As a safety device, an auxiliary motor is installed to drive the blower in the event of main power plant stalling. This auxiliary, which is a 1 ½ horse-power air-cooled single-cylinder Indian motor, is mounted on the side of the blower frame and is connected to the blower by a chain which operates in a two-way clutch, permitting the operator to engage or disengage either means of power plant for blower drive at will.
The two propellers, of Paragon manufacture, are very large and powerful, operating at half motor speed at about 800 revolutions per minute to 1000 revolutions per minute with pitch about equal to diameter, which is 8 feet. The claimed efficiency is 73 per cent. The projected area of the propellers equals 15.25 square feet, and they are made of white and silver spruce.
The gas bag is built of two-ply rubberized cotton fabric, whose strength is 70 pounds per inch for both warp and weft, and whose permeability is 35 cubic feet in 24 hours at two feet water pressure. All seams are extra wide, with double rows of stitching. The cloth is diagonally doubled, outside ply being bias, and yellow in color to prevent the deterioration from light. The gray inside ply is waterproof. The ballonets are made of a two-ply cotton fabric with rubber coating between plys; strength, 40 pounds for warp and weft.
This dirigible is designed to attain a speed between 25 and 30 miles per hour, with endurance at full speed of two hours. It has a passenger carrying capacity of seven men. The rate of ascent and descent is 6 feet per second.
It is equipped with a full set of instruments, including barometer, barograph, pressure gages (envelope, ballonets, gasoline and water), chronometer, air speed meter, inclinometer, statoscope, compass, all made of light and compact materials. There is also a signaling system of different colored lights from pilot to engineer post.
The suspension proper of the dirigible is of standard European design, the ropes being carried through pulley blocks on the car, and are attached to belly band by means of splicing and looping brought out at each eyelet.
A complete first aid kit is provided, as well as provision for supplies and food for long trips.—Aviation. 1/12.
Fleet Base on Chesapeake Bay Recommended.—The Atlantic fleet needs an adequate base on Chesapeake Bay, Captain Jonah McKean, aid for material to the chief of operations, told the House Naval Committee to-day. He urged the purchase of the old Jamestown Exposition site, facing the broad anchorage ground in Hampton Roads, for the purpose.
Captain McKean appeared to explain estimates of $5,133,000 for the air service, and since there would be an aviation field at the proposed base he went into the plan in detail, although the Navy Department has not yet recommended to Congress any action on the project. The owners ask $1,400,000 for the exposition land, which includes about 640 acres, Captain McKean said. Chairman Padgett remarked that such a figure would mean a wide margin of profit, but the officer thought the facilities offered for sale were worth the price.
Explaining the tentative development scheme for the tract, Captain McKean said the training school, fuel storage, fleet stores, mines and mine laying equipment all would be removed from the Navy Yard at Norfolk, which would be developed as an adequate construction and repair plant, while the rendezvous of the active ships would be transferred to the new base.
The primary submarine base of the fifth naval district would be established, he said, at the new site, where a large enough deep water frontage would be available to provide for ten 1200-foot docks for ships loading stores.
One of the most important features of the proposed station, the officer declared, would be a recreation ground which would provide the men of the fleet with proper places for athletic games. He approved the suggestion of Representatives Roberts and Oliver that a sailors' club house also be established.—New York Herald, 2/12.
Supply of the Fleet in War Time.—The paymaster general of the navy, in his annual report says:
"The present opportunity for study of supply problems abroad has been taken advantage of by sending to London on intelligence duty an officer of the pay corps who has wide experience in supply administration.
"There has been compiled a 30-day provision list by which it is possible to find out in a moment the quantities of all items of provisions necessary for a given number of men for any length of time. By its use cargo lists of provisions can be made up in a few minutes for the entire complement of a fleet of any size without first canvassing individual vessels and then consolidating the replies into an elaborate tabulation, as was heretofore required.
"A clothing list has also been compiled and printed, showing the requirements for from 1000 to 100.000 men for six months (summer and winter) after they have been originally outfitted.
"Sources of supply of fuel in time of war have been canvassed and plans for collier and tank assignments at loading points have been tentatively adopted. A number of practical tests have been made of existing facilities at the various yards for coaling and oiling battleships and destroyers, war conditions being simulated as far as practicable in order to obtain data for intelligent criticism. The results have shown not only the relative efficiency with which these operations were conducted but also wherein improvements might be made to equipment or in methods.
Obtaining sufficient merchant ships for naval use in time of stress enters very largely into the problem of fuel supply, and the listing of ships suitable for refueling the fleet and for other purposes has steadily progressed.
"The most expeditious rail and water routes from supply centers to delivery points and from naval magazines to tidewater have been determined upon. Rail facilities for shipment of heavy guns from the naval gun factory have been inquired into and the rolling stock of all lines capable of carrying the largest guns has been inventoried. Merchant transportation by water from all east coast yards to various points on the Atlantic seaboard and Gulf coast have been investigated with a view to listing ships and recording their schedules."—New York Herald, 12/12.
To Forbid Radio Control Abroad.—A bill forbidding foreign ownership of wireless stations within the United States is being prepared by the various executive departments of the government concerned with wireless matters and neutrality problems for submission to Congress.
Passage of this bill will require a change of ownership in the Sayville and Tuckerton stations and in those of the British Marconi system. While the Sayville station was nominally owned by an American corporation, it was in reality under German control, the corporate ownership being no more than a fiction. It is said that the bill now being prepared will not allow even such foreign control of wireless stations in this country.
Defence of the nation's vital interests and of its neutrality will be the reason assigned for the enactment of this legislation. It is understood that the administration will press for the passage of the bill at the present session.—New York Herald, 6/12.
Telephones for Coast Guard.—In order to facilitate the work of the U. S. Coast Guard along this coast, every station from Eastport, Me., to Cape Hatteras has been connected by government telephone lines directly with the wireless stations. With this improvement it will be possible to give much more prompt notice of disaster at sea, with the result that the nearest cutter will be able to proceed at once to render immediate help or to stand by until weather conditions make it possible to board or get near the distressed craft with small boats.—Marine Journal, 25/11.
Coast Guard Craft to Be Armed.—The naval appropriation estimates for the coming year, it is learned, carry provision for anti-aircraft puns for the vessels of the United States Coast Guard, together with liberal allowance for machine guns and anti-torpedo-craft guns.
Under recent arrangements, it is said, all designs for new coast guard cutters are scrutinized by the Construction Bureau of the Navy Department and indorsed with reference to battery implacements, magazine provision and berthing accommodation. Two new cutters now provided for will have displacements of about 1800 tons each and 18 knots speed.
The Bureau of Ordnance of the Navy Department, it is stated, allows to the new vessels three anti-aircraft guns each, of 3-inch caliber; four 6-pounder rapid fire guns and four machine guns. The scantlings of the new cutters will be unusually heavy, since the vessels are designed to drive through heavy seas and make the best possible way in all kinds of weather when speeding to the assistance of vessels in distress.
The decision to place ample anti-aircraft batteries on board the cutters is significant of the determination of the Navy Department regarding the service to be exacted of the cutters in time of war. In peace time the cruising sea going cutters carry crews of about 70 men. These same vessels in time of war are expected to carry crews of from 125 to 130.—New York Herald, 3/12.
The Navy Petroleum Reserve.—Patriotic societies have come to the assistance of the Navy Department in its effort to retain control of the oil lands withdrawn by President Taft for the use of the navy. The "General Leasing Bill" which passed the House last session is now before the Senate. This bill grants to private persons the right to drill and operate oil wells in the reserved fields, and its provisions are said to be such as to threaten complete destruction of the navy's oil reserve. The Navy League is urging its members to protest against the passage of the proposed bill, the statement of the directors being in part as follows:
"Our nation has decided upon a strong naval defence policy and has voted hundreds of millions for new ships. Now comes a danger of legislation to take from the navy its oil reserves upon which the fleet must depend for fuel in the future.
"At the last session of Congress a bill was passed by the House which would legalize the claims of private individuals and corporations to the naval oil reserve lands set aside in 1909 and 1910 for the use of the navy. This bill, or a substitute, said to be backed by powerful oil interests, is about to be taken up in the Senate.
"All Americans who believe in an efficient navy should do everything in their power to defeat this proposed legislation.
"Assistant Secretary of the Navy Roosevelt, voicing the views of the Navy Department, has said that the preservation of this fuel oil reserve is essential to the very life and future existence of the navy; and that while the supply within our boundaries is steadily diminishing, its consumption by the navy is rapidly increasing and in 10 years hence may reach 10.000,000 barrels a year. He points to the self-evident fact that the government has the right to and must set aside oil lands and prevent absolutely the taking of oil from these lands for private purposes.
"It is impossible for an oil burning ship to burn coal.
"It would be impossible to build or operate the recently authorized battle cruisers, scouts and destroyers if we had to rely on coal for fuel.
"The Navy League believes that the naval oil lands should be reserved at any cost, and, that if private individuals have valid claims on these lands they should be compensated for them, but that under no circumstances should any of the oil be taken for private use.
"We ask the members of the Navy League to at once write to their senators and representatives urging the defeat of the proposed bill or of any substitute that will take from the navy all or any part of its oil reserves."
A committee of the Naval Consulting Board, on December 11, reported that the nation ought to hold "with unassailable title reserves of oil lands within its own border located with reference to economical transportation and containing sufficient oil to meet the requirement of the ever increasing navy for a period of not less than 50 years."
The committee reported that at the present rate of consumption the oil now under ground in the United States would last only 28 years, and the committee submitted a resolution declaring that the Naval Consulting Board is convinced " that any legislation which may divert from the navy any portion of its oil reserve will seriously weaken the navy and impair the national defence."
Because the Navy Department has committed itself to the use of oil fuel, because of its military advantages, it is necessary that the permanency and continuity of the fuel supply be made certain, the resolution says. Legislation now pending in Congress, it is declared, imperils the integrity of the navy petroleum reserves.
Meanwhile the Secretary of the Interior has recommended the withdrawal of other oil lands in the interests of the navy. The New York Herald of December 12 reports this transaction as follows:
"Franklin K. Lane. Secretary of the Interior, to-day announced that he had recommended to President Wilson the withdrawal for navy purposes of about 45,000 acres of public land in Colorado and 86,000 acres of public land in Utah, each of which, it is estimated, will yield no less than 500,000,000 barrels of fuel oil.
"The lands include a part of the Green River formation, containing shales which yield petroleum, when subjected to destructive distillation, says the official statement. Shales of this character in Scotland have long been producing oil and paying dividends on a large investment. The shales in areas withdrawn will yield from two to four times as much oil as is obtained from the average ton of Scotch oil shale. In addition to the heavy residuum this shale oil will yield 10 to 15 per cent of gasoline by ordinary methods of refining, and as a by-product the shale will produce ammonium sulphate, a valuable fertilizer, in large quantities.
"' The withdrawn areas are in arid or semi-arid sections, where the land is of little agricultural value. However, the surface of any lands valuable for farming may be entered under the agriculture land laws, subject to a reservation to the United States of the oil and gas therein. They lie within easy reach of railroad lines and will, it is believed, be exceedingly valuable as an underground reserve fuel for the navy. In addition to the areas withdrawn large unreserved areas of lands containing this shale exist.'"
To Bury Fuel Oil.—The Navy Department desires to obtain from Congress sufficient money to provide underground storage reservoirs for its fuel-oil supply. It is believed this would protect the fuel oil from attack by an enemy. An estimate of $1,000,000 for additional storage space will provide storage at Guantanamo, Pearl Harbor, Puget Sound, San Diego, Mare Island, and Melville, R. I. The six stations mentioned now have a surface tank oil capacity of about 30,000,000 gallons, and the proposed project will increase the supply by 58,000,000 gallons. There has been no work done on surface storage plants this year, as it was desired to obtain more money and settle the underground storage proposition. It is proposed to store 6,000,000 gallons of oil at Guantanamo, 18,000,000 gallons at Pearl Harbor, 12,000,000 gallons at Puget Sound, 5,000,000 gallons at San Diego, 12,000,000 gallons at Mare Island, and 5,000,000 gallons at Melville.— Army and Navy Register, 2/12.
Accident to the "Jupiter."—The collier Jupiter, the only electric-drive ship in the navy, was reported disabled off Five Fathom Bank, on November 27, and was towed to Norfolk by the Cyclops. The nature of the accident has not been made public.
"H-3" Wrecked.—The New York Herald reports that the submarine H-3 grounded in a fog near Humboldt Bay early in the morning of December 14. The craft was badly battered by heavy sea, and the crew was with difficulty rescued by means of a breeches buoy. The Herald quotes the commander of the H-3 to the effect that the vessel is on a sandy bottom and has suffered no serious structural damage.
Army Transport "Sumner" Aground.—The Sunnier, Panama for New York, grounded off Barnegat in a fog during the night of December 11-12. Passengers were removed by coast guard cutters and life boats, the master and crew remaining with the vessel. Efforts to float the vessel have not succeeded at the time of writing.
Accident to "Arkansas."—The Arkansas, cruising in Cuban waters, is reported to be returning to her navy yard for machinery repairs. Conflicting press reports indicate turbine damage, but the exact nature and the extent of the damage has not been disclosed.
Argentine Officers to Serve in U.S. Navy.—The New York Herald publishes a Buenos Ayres dispatch, saying that 10 Argentine naval officers will in the near future report for duty on board ships of the United States Navy. These officers, the dispatch says, are instructed to pay special attention to the handling of submarines.
The Personnel Question.—The Army and Navy Register and the New York Herald report several statements made by officers of the Navy Department before the Naval Committees of Congress bearing on the personnel question. Admiral Benson, Chief of Naval Operations, said there is now a mobilization plan and a definite project of personnel expansion of such a definite character as to enable the Navy Department to come to Congress with positive recommendations for increase, in detail as in the case of the army, by increments or units. It was a case of organization not heretofore existing.
The department has adopted a policy of using older ships for police duty with reduced crews of about 50 per cent of the regular complement; thus, the armored cruisers on the west coast are employed in Mexican waters, while the older battleships on the east coast are, or will be, used in the waters of Haiti, Santo Domingo, and Mexico. A detailed account was furnished of the operation of the fleet during the year to show its practical employment and its development toward increased usefulness. A gratifying showing had been made in target practice, especially in long-range firing.
Admiral Benson told of a plan to develop the naval militia and reserve on board vessels in reserve now manned by skeleton crews, it being proposed to have the reservists and militiamen furnish the crews ultimately, with regular stations and so on. In the meantime the ships in reserve were kept in comparative readiness for active service with material ready for issue. . With more officers it would be possible to have greater permanence of detail to reserve ships; now officers and men, as well, were on board such ships sometimes only a few weeks, their services being required elsewhere.
There was an interesting discussion, mostly among committee members, inspired by Mr. Oliver's proposal to have supplementary crews for reserve ships, to be permanent in personnel and employed to train new crews for the same vessels. Admiral Benson preferred the system of utilizing, say, 50 per cent of the regular crews from ships in commission with new men on board reserve vessels called into service. Mr. Oliver adhered to his notion of a permanent expert crew of full dimensions, and he took occasion to remark that even the officers might learn something from such a body of fully trained men. He would like to see it tried out, at all events, without prejudice to the existing plans for reserve personnel,
Mr. Roberts revived last session's topic on the complement of ships, on which there had been—and is—a difference of service view as to the extent of manning. Admiral Benson said there had been some recent discussion of this and some modifications. Personally he was in favor of a reduced, rather than a full, complement for certain secondary guns. In the matter of officers it was, of course, not yet possible to maintain full complements as would be done were the number of officers available.
Mr. Roberts also expressed some anxiety over the difficulty in giving militia officers such training as fitted them for important command, perhaps on board battleships of the first line. Admiral Benson thought the system of education in the case of the militia was consistent with the duties such officers were likely to be called upon to perform in time of war; but Mr. Roberts suggested there might be an expansion along that line to qualify militia officers for larger responsibilities than appeared to be contemplated under present conditions.
Admiral Benson stated he would like to have more men and officers on the active ships, but they now have technically correct complements. It is expected to have four new ships in commission next year.
Admiral Benson again referred to the shortage of officers and men and stated he would hold to the plan of 17 first-class ships with the active fleet, with increased complements for the reserve ships, and would bring the torpedo flotilla up to the highest efficiency. He would not increase the number of first-class ships in the active fleet to 25 until the additional personnel was trained. In answer to Mr. Roberts he stated that a division now consists of four ships, a reduction of one from the division maintained under the Meyer administration of the Navy Department. Under the latter plan it was only possible to have four ships on duty, as one always was undergoing repairs. Admiral Benson changed this plan when he went to the department and stated that he favors a three-ship division, believing such a number enough to be handled by one man.
Rear Admiral Palmer, chief of the Bureau of Navigation, has recommended legislation providing that the present first class of midshipmen, which would in due course be graduated in June. 1917, be graduated in February, and that the present second class, which would be graduated in June, 1918. be graduated one year earlier. He has further recommended that an act be passed by which the course should embrace only three years until the present urgent need of officers should be passed. It has further been suggested that each member of Congress be allowed an additional appointment at the Naval Academy.
There are at present 183 members of the first class and 207 members of the second class. The passage of the proposed legislation therefore would insure nearly 400 additional young officers of the navy by June next, instead of less than 200. The third class now numbers 213, and the fourth class, by far the largest in the history of the institution, has 621 members. Should legislation suggested by Rear Admiral Palmer be enacted the class which will enter in June will contain well over 600 members, and it has been estimated by the academy authorities that there would be about 1400 midshipmen. If each member of Congress is allowed an additional appointment the number of midshipmen would be about 1750.
The Machine Rifle Board.—The reconvening of the Machine Rifle Board on November 24 at the order of Secretary Baker after it had adjourned to meet next May, together with the appointments of a special board in the Southern Department to revise the present regulations concerning automatic machine rifles with special reference to the use of the Lewis machine gun, would seem to put a new face on the report of the Machine Rifle Board which recommends the immediate purchase of 4600 Vickers machine guns of the latest approved type. This report of the Machine Rifle Board relieves General Crozier from the charge so freely made that personal reasons entered into the objections urged by the Ordnance Department against the Lewis gun, thus accomplishing the purpose we had in view in recommending the selection of a board, concerning whom no such suggestion could be made.
The Army and Navy Journal has always been of the opinion that service conditions were a better test of any weapon than the conventional trials in an arsenal where conditions, in the very nature of things, must be almost wholly artificial. It would appear that Secretary Baker is of the same opinion, as the result of the recent experiences on the border, where about 350 Lewis guns are in use under service conditions and have given satisfaction. It is reported from Washington that Mr. Baker's reason for reconvening the Machine Rifle Board is to ask its members to reconsider their recommendation for the purchase of so many Vickers guns and, instead, to order the immediate purchase of a quantity of Lewis guns, owing to their lightness and portability. Color is given to this statement by the fact that the special board appointed in the Southern Department to revise the regulations for automatic machine rifles is required to include in its draft of new regulations special regulations for the Lewis machine gun.—Army and Navy Journal, 2/12.
Machine Guns for Marine Corps.—The Marine Corps has not yet decided upon a type of machine gun, but is waiting the final report of the machine gun board recently recalled by Secretary Baker to reconsider its first recommendations for the immediate purchase of 4600 heavy Vickers water-cooled guns instead of the light, portable type.
This information was given the House naval committee by Brig. Gen. Charles McCawley, U. S. M. C, when Marine Corps matters were under consideration on November 27.
The organization of the machine gun units of the Marine Corps is said to differ from that of the army, that corps having been guided by the reports from Europe, and intends to have 30 machine guns per thousand men instead of 12 to a regiment of 1500, which is the army plan. The Marine Corps has been basing all its plans on the adoption of a light portable gun similar to the Lewis air-cooled weapon.—Army and Navy Register, 3/12.
Court Martial Decision Relating to Responsibility for Navigation.— Commander Reginald B. Belknap, U. S. N., in command of the Mining and Mine Sweeping Division of the Atlantic fleet, and Commander Arthur MacArthur, Jr., U. S. N., have been sentenced to lose 10 numbers for the grounding of the U. S. S. San Francisco on May 19, 1916. The charge was "improperly hazarding a vessel of the navy, in consequence of which she was run upon a shoal and seriously injured." The evidence in the case shows that the weather was foggy and misty, but the court held both the commander of the division and the captain of the ship guilty as charged. In the summary of the case it is pointed out that the evidence shows that the commanding officer of the San Francisco had been directed to proceed with the vessel to the entrance of the Great Round Shoal Channel. At 12.07 a. m. the ship arrived at the point which by reckonings should have been close to the entrance buoy. Upon arriving at this point the division commander was to decide whether to proceed through the channel or to go outside around Nantucket Shoal, the decision being dependent upon the weather conditions.
According to the testimony on which the court based its findings, the division commander was weighing the alternatives of the situation in his mind and was about to decide as to the course when at 12.14 a. m. the officer of the deck reported sighting a flashlight bearing 225 degrees; the captain did not see it; the navigator did not see it; no lookout reported it. The division commander, feeling that this light was the one for which all had been searching, gave the order, at 12.15, "Head for the light, captain." The captain entered no protest to the order of the division commander, but gave the necessary orders; the ship turned slowly to the starboard ; by the order of the captain speed was increased to two-thirds in order to expedite her swinging, and finally was steadied on 231 degrees. Meanwhile the captain reiterated his inability to see the light, but steadied the ship one-half point away from the bearings given to the division commander in order to avoid certain shoal ground near buoy No. 4, which at the time the light marked.
From the evidence recorded it appears that no doubt arose in the mind of any person on the bridge as to whether the light was one or the other of the two channel buoys; the only question which seems to have arisen in the mind of the commanding officer was as to whether the light actually existed. Though the navigator plotted the new course (231 degrees) on the chart of the dead reckoning position at 12.15, and though he found it passed over a shoal about two miles distant and varied about 25 degrees from the course of the channel, and though this discrepancy was observed by both the commanding officer and the division commander, no action was taken by any person and the course was followed until the San Francisco took ground at 12.41 a. m.—Army and Navy Journal, 7/11.
Criticism of Navy Prison.—An indication of the report that Thomas Mott Osborne, one-time warden of Sing Sing prison, will make to Secretary of the Navy Daniels on his investigation of the penitentiary at the Portsmouth (N. H.) Navy Yard was given in an address by Mr. Osborne before the Twentieth Century Club.
Mr. Osborne asserted that the penitentiary seemed to him "absurdly managed," that the uniforms were "degrading" and that the treatment of the men was "the most severe anywhere."
"What is it for?" he asked. "To fit men to return to the navy or to go out in the world? In either case it is a failure."
"Though it shelters youths who have committed no crime in the eyes of the civil authorities, the treatment is the most severe anywhere." Mr. Osborne continued. "When the men return from working on the sea wall, in a place where they could not possibly have obtained anything but sand, boulders and seaweed, they are stripped and searched. Portsmouth reminded me of Portland, England, where men are searched in that absurd fashion ten times a day."—New York Herald, 3/12.
Edison Company Sued as Result Ok "E-2" Explosion.—Suits for damages aggregating $350,000 were brought on December 4, 1916, in the Supreme Court, Brooklyn, N. Y., against the Edison Storage Battery Company, by six men who were injured when the submarine E-2 was wrecked by an explosion at the navy yard, New York, January 15 last. The men are Michael Peyser, Harry Zoll, Sac C. Miles, Richard P. Heyne, Otto Hasert and August Kaplan. All are electricians who were working on the boat at the time of the explosion. All except Miles have sued for $50,000. He demands $100,000. The plaintiffs assert that on the day of the explosion they were engaged in installing a battery on the submarine, for which the Edison concern had a contract with the government. They contend the battery was not equipped with proper devices to "indicate the individual voltage of the cells," and that in consequence the latter were permitted to generate explosive gases in dangerous quantities.—Army and Navy Journal, 9/12.
UNITED STATES NAVAL MILITIA AND NAVAL RESERVE
Naval Reserve.—Arrangements have been made by the bureau of navigation of the Navy Department for the enrolment in the naval coast defence reserve, one of the classes of the naval reserve force, created by the act of August 29. A circular relating to the class has been issued for the information of commandants of naval districts and applicants. This class will be open to owners and operators of yachts and motor power boats suitable for naval purposes in defence of the coast. It is proposed to make contracts with such owners to take over their boats in time of war or national emergency upon payment of a reasonable indemnity.
The fleet reserve, in which enrolments are taking place, has a membership of about 500 with additions thereto at the rate of about 200 a week. Places of enrolment for this class will be established in the capital of each state under the direction of the naval officer in charge of the recruiting district.
Arrangements are being made to enroll in the fleet reserve some 700 or 800 seamen who are employed on ships navigating the Great Lakes. It is planned to take these men on a winter cruise with the fleet to Guantanamo during the next three months, returning them to their vessels in March in time to resume their regular occupations. These men will belong to class two of the naval reserve force.—Army and Navy Register.
Power Boat Owners Object to Navy’s Requirements.—There are many owners and prospective owners of motor boats who are anxious to do their part in the general program of preparedness, but there is a rapidly growing impression among these men that the Navy Department suggested program for enlarging the mosquito fleet is doomed to fail as regards getting anywhere near the number of craft and men enrolled as is desirable.
This attitude was well expressed at a meeting of the United States power squadron's delegates. The meeting was one of the most enthusiastic and optimistic ever held in this city among the followers of marine sports, and there is no doubt about the men being patriotic to the extreme, but they unanimously upheld Roger Upton, chairman of the governing board, in a letter he had sent to the Navy Department, criticizing that department's stand as outlined in the report of the gathering of naval officers at Newport.
In the first place it was stated that one of the conditions required is that the men enroll for four years and serve aboard the auxiliary craft for at least three consecutive weeks each summer during those four years. That may appear to be an easy thing for civilians to do, according to the way naval officers view the situation, but there are comparatively few men in civil life who can get away from business for that length of time, even if they desire to.
That is equally true of employers and employees, and the result is that the Navy Department is supposedly unconsciously discriminating in favor of the few who are in a position to devote that time to the service and will do so, with the result that the great majority of motor boat owners will lose all interest in the movement.
The delegates and members of the U. S. P. S. are as enthusiastic a body of men as are to be found in this country, and there are about 400 of them, representing 22 local squadrons. They have taken up the study of seamanship and navigation with a will and are doing excellent work in encouraging all owners of power craft to become proficient in the art of handling their craft.
Each year they hold maneuvers and frequent quizzes, and as a result merchant craft, such as tugs, ferryboats, etc., that were accustomed to look with scorn upon power craft, now observe the rules of the road when they see the U. S. P. S ensign flying at the stern of any motor boat, for they are aware that the owners know the rules of the road as well as they do.
Many of the men enrolled in this organization do not own craft suitable for use in connection with naval maneuvers off shore, but these same men do know their work, and in addition they have an intimate knowledge of local waters that might prove of inestimable value in the event of war that brought hostile ships to our shores.
While these men are anxious to serve their country in case of need, they do not intend to enlist in any federal organization that may result in their being called upon to neglect their business at times when it is not really necessary and to justify their assertions they cite the cases of national guardsmen who were called to the Mexican border.
While these U. S. P. S. members condemn the Navy Department's attitude as regards conditions of enlistment, they heartily approve the department's decision that seaworthiness is more desirable than excessive speed, as is shown by the classification of craft by the board that convened at Newport, R. I.
The conditions as regards armament came in for criticism, however, on the guns to be carried according to navy specifications, for, it was claimed, the weight of these guns is more than can be carried and still maintain the trim of the craft, though much lighter guns than those selected for use aboard scout cruisers might be used.
Members of the U. S. P. S. and other similar bodies will continue their work of preparing, so that in time of actual need they will be available as useful factors in naval scheme of preparedness, but until the Navy Department arranges less drastic conditions they will do their work independently. The fact that the navy offers ratings to the men who continue under its auspices, as well as free gasoline during maneuvers and some other minor inducements, will not affect the attitude of the great majority of those who are in a position to be of the greatest assistance to it. However, many are expected to build craft that comply with naval specifications as regards length, speed and seaworthiness.—New York Herald, 20/11.
THE NAVAL TRAINING ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES
The following is issued in pamphlet form by the N. T. A. U. S.:
STATEMENT AS TO PURPOSES
It has long been recognized that the preservation of peace and the defence of the United States against foreign aggression from across the Atlantic or Pacific oceans require the maintenance of adequate naval forces, including not only sufficient ships of war, but also enough competent officers and men to handle them. The personnel of the navy has been, and still is. wholly insufficient to man our effective fighting ships, and until recently there has been no authority of law for increasing the number or for the creation and enrolment of a naval reserve force. Commendable efforts have been made by those who are awake to the situation to avail of the services of civilians who, by reason of their nautical or technical experience, may be or become fitted for useful service in the navy or in one of its auxiliary or administrative branches. From the 15th of August until the 12th of September, 1916, the Navy Department held the first naval training cruise for civilians on board the reserve ships of the Atlantic fleet, in which nearly 2000 men, drawn from almost every walk of life and from all parts of the country, took part. The success of the experiment has impressed upon these civilians that the necessity for naval preparedness is as important as the necessity for military preparedness, that naval preparedness requires most careful and extended training of the personnel of the fighting and auxiliary ships, and that further training cruises or other schools or camps for naval instruction should be held next year and in succeeding years ; and they have formed this association for the purpose of promoting and encouraging such naval training.
The Naval Training Association of the United States does not enter the field occupied by the naval militia. Naval militia organizations exist only in comparatively few localities, rendering it impossible for large numbers residing outside those localities to obtain the training so afforded. Most of those who took part in the naval training cruise of 1916 are men whose occupations and activities have made them unable to enlist in the naval militia and devote the time and painstaking service required by that organization. It is to meet the requirements of men who are unable to join the naval militia and who are nevertheless useful material for naval service that the association advocates naval training cruises, schools, camps or other forms of instruction. One of the purposes of the association is to make use, as far as may be practicable, of the facilities of the navy for such training, including, if possible, the use of the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis and the several training stations, when not otherwise occupied, for the training of civilians; and it is also particularly hoped that a period of instruction may annually be held at which boys between the ages of 15 and 19 may be afforded an opportunity for naval training.
The act of Congress, approved August 29, 1916, entitled, "An Act Making Appropriations for the Naval Service for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1917, and for Other Purposes," commonly known as the "Navy Bill," has taken a forward step of great importance to naval preparedness by the creation of a naval reserve force to consist of six classes, some one of which will afford every citizen to whom the naval service is congenial an opportunity to perform the patriotic duty of preparing himself to do his part in defence of his country. The provision of the law authorizing the Secretary of the Navy to establish schools or camps of instruction at such times and in such localities as he may deem advisable for the purpose of instructing members and applicants for membership in the naval reserve force should, if advantage be taken of the opportunity, result in the creation of a sufficient body of men competent to aid in the naval defence of the country if occasion should arise.
CONSTITUTION OF THE NAVAL TRAINING ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES
Whereas, during the months of August and September, 1916, the Navy Department held the first naval training cruise for civilians on board the reserve battleships Rhode Island, Maine, Virginia, Kearsarge, New Jersey, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana and Alabama, with the object of helping to equip properly qualified men to act as reserves in time of war Or national emergency by giving them a course of training on warships under naval officers and naval discipline; of fostering a patriotic spirit and giving to civilians some knowledge of the navy and the navy requirements of the country; of interesting civilians in naval matters so that by taking future courses of training or study many may qualify for important positions in the active and auxiliary naval forces of the United States; and
Whereas, The civilians who took part in the cruise on the various ships were of the opinion that the interests of naval preparedness demanded the formation of a permanent organization, and in order to effect such an organization a meeting was held on board U. S. S. Rhode Island on September 1, 1916, at which were present the following named delegates appointed to represent civilians upon each ship: U. S. S. Rhode Island: D. McK. Morris, of Pittsburgh, Pa.; W. Frazier Harrison, of Oreland, Pa., and J. H. Craige, of Philadelphia, Pa. U. S. S. Maine: F. H. McAdoo,
F. O. Byrd and
W. C. Booth, all of New York City. U. S. S. Virginia:
H. Parkman, Jr., and
Edward M. Pickman, of Boston, Mass.
U. S. S. Kearsarge:
G. A. Hinckley, of Portland, Me., and
R. W. Emmons, 2d, of Boston, Mass.
U. S. S. New Jersey:
M. B. Halliday, of Ithaca, N. Y., and
Franklin Farrell, Jr., of New Haven, Conn.
U. S. S. Illinois:
A. H. Kelly, of Richmond. Va., and
Edmund H. Eitel, of Indianapolis, Ind.
U. S. S. Kentucky:
P. M. Hamilton, of Sterlington, N. Y., and
Don P. Hawkins, of New York City.
U. S. S. Louisiana:
Martin Lindsay, of Milwaukee, Wis., and
John M. Ewen, jr., of Chicago, III.
U. S. S. Alabama:
Oscar H. Cleveland, of Memphis, Tenn.:
also, W. L. Rowe, of Pittsburgh, Pa., and
Thomas Newhall, of Philadelphia, Pa., who acted as secretary of the meeting; and Whereas, It was determined that a national organization should be formed to be known as The Naval Training Association of the United States, for the purpose of encouraging further similar cruises, and otherwise stimulating naval preparedness; and
Whereas, It was determined to refer the preparation of a constitution and by-laws to a sub-committee of three, with the request that the committee be prepared to report at a general organization meeting to be held in New York City about October 15, 1916, and it was, on motion, resolved that a committee consisting of William Greenough, of New York; John L. Saltonstall, of Boston, and John M. Ewen, Jr., of Chicago, act as a committee, of which Mr. Greenough should be chairman, and Thomas Newhall, secretary, to prepare a constitution and by-laws for The Naval Training Association of the United States, and the meeting then adjourned to meet upon the call of the chairman of the sub-committee; and
Whereas, In certain naval defence districts there are, or are in process of formation, associations for the promotion of naval coast defence in its various branches whose members participated in the local exercises of motor boats or aircraft for naval coast defence recently held under the direction of the Navy Department, and other organizations of water-men exist whose aims and endeavors are along lines included in the general purposes of this organization, and the efforts of such associations have been largely instrumental in forwarding the success of the movement for the naval training of civilians; and
Whereas, The sub-committee appointed at said meeting having prepared a constitution and by-laws and submitted the same to the meeting duly called and this day held:
Now, therefore, the above named delegates appointed by the civilian? who took part in the naval training cruise as aforesaid, hereby adopt the following constitution and by-laws:
I
There is hereby formed the Naval Training Association of the United States to promote the naval training of civilians in the interest of naval preparedness and for the purpose of cooperating with the Navy Department in securing the attendance of civilians on future naval training cruises or at the schools or camps of instruction, to be established for the naval training of civilians, and in securing the enrolment of the owners and operators of motor power boats, yachts and aircraft suitable for the auxiliary services of the navy.
II
Membership in this association shall be open to any citizen of the United States who enrolls as a member, pays the annual dues fixed by the bylaws and
(a) who took part in the naval training cruise of 1916 or who takes part in the training cruises, schools or camps of instruction held hereafter under the direction of the Navy Department; or
(b) who faithfully attended drills and received instruction at one of the navy yards for at least two months prior to the organization of this association; or
(c) who was an owner or operator or a member of the crew of a motor power boat, yacht, or aircraft during the exercises held in connection with the naval training cruise of 1916, or who is an owner or operator or a member of the crew of such a boat, yacht or aircraft in any future mobilization thereof held under the direction of the Navy Department; or
(d) who receives training for the prescribed period under the direction of the Navy Department designed to render him useful for the service of the navy in any capacity; or
(e) who is elected to honorary membership by the governing committee or the executive committee.
III
This constitution shall be subject to amendment by majority vote of the members in attendance at a regular meeting or by majority vote of the whole membership taken by mail.
BY-LAWS OF THE NAVAL TRAINING ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES
I. Governing Committee: Officers
(A) There shall be a governing committee selected as hereinafter provided. It shall be the duty and function of the governing committee to determine and guide the policy of the association, to appoint the standing committees as provided by article 2 of these by-laws, and such special committees as may, from time to time, be required, and to supervise and direct the activities of the association. The governing committee shall select from its members a chairman, a secretary, a treasurer, and an executive secretary. The governing committee may also elect an honorary president and not more than ten honorary vice-presidents, and all such officers shall ex officio be members of the governing committee.
The governing committee shall, in the first instance and until their successors are appointed as hereinafter provided, be composed of the delegates appointed to attend the meeting held on U. S. S. Rhode Island, on September 1, 1916, viz.: D. McK. Morris. W. Frazier Harrison, J. H. Craige. F. H. McAdoo, F. O. Byrd, W. C. Booth, H. Parkham, Jr., Edward M. Pickman, Richard S. Russell, G. A. Hinckley, R. W. Emmons, 2d. M. B. Halliday, Franklin Farrell, Jr., A. H. Kelly, Edmund H. Eitel, P. M. Hamilton, Don P. Hawkins, Martin Lindsay, John M. Ewen, Jr., and Oscar H. Cleveland, and also Thomas Newhall, W. L. Rowe, Paul L. Hammond, Junius S. Morgan, John L. Saltonstall. William Greenough, and such members at large (including honorary members) as the governing committee may add to its number, which shall not exceed 100.
On or before the end of each calendar year, beginning with the year 1917, the governing committee shall meet and shall select from the entire enrolled membership of the association a new governing committee, not exceeding 100 in number. Such selection shall be made with a particular view of providing for representation from all parts of the country and from new members who took part in the cruises, schools, camps or mobilization of motor boats or aircraft during that year. Any member of the governing committee shall be eligible for reelection.
(B) All officers and all members of committees shall serve during the term for which they have been elected or appointed and until their successors are chosen and qualified.
A vacancy in any office may be filled by the executive committee for the unexpired term.
(C) The chairman of the governing committee shall preside at all meetings of the association and at all meetings of the governing committee. In his absence the secretary of the governing committee shall preside.
(D) The secretary of the governing committee shall record at all meetings of the association and of the governing committee and shall perform all duties incident to the office of secretary, subject to the control of the governing committee.
By virtue of his office the secretary of governing committee shall be assistant treasurer, and in the absence or disability of the treasurer shall perform the duties of the treasurer.
(E) The treasurer shall have the custody of all funds of the association and shall deposit the same in such banks or depositaries as the executive committee shall designate. He shall sign receipts and vouchers for payments made to the association, and jointly with such other officer as may be designated by the executive committee, or singly if by it authorized, he shall sign all checks made by the association and pay out all funds of the association under the direction of the executive committee. He shall keep books of account, which shall be audited by the auditing committee.
By virtue of his office, the treasurer shall be assistant secretary, and in the absence or disability of the secretary shall perform the duties of the secretary.
II. Standing Committees
(A) Executive Committee.—The governing committee shall appoint, not to exceed 11 of its number, to form, together with the chairman, the secretary and the treasurer of the governing committee, and the executive secretary, as members ex officio, an executive committee to serve during the pleasure of the governing committee. The executive committee shall have authority to exercise all powers of the governing committee at any time when the governing committee is not in session, and all action by the executive committee shall be reported to the governing committee at its next meeting.
(B) Finance Committee.—The governing committee shall appoint, not to exceed five of its members, to form, together with the chairman of the governing committee, ex officio, a finance committee. The function of the finance committee shall be to raise funds to enable the association to carry out its purposes, and all such funds shall be paid to the treasurer.
(C) Auditing Committee.—The executive committee shall appoint three of its members as an auditing committee to supervise and audit the accounts of the treasurer.
(D) Local Enrolment Committees.—The governing committee or executive committee shall appoint enrolment committees for such centers of population as may be deemed desirable, which committees shall have power to add to their number. The function of the enrolment committees shall be to assist in the recruiting of men for the naval training cruises, schools or camps of instruction, mobilizations of motor power boats, yachts and aircraft, or other form of naval instruction which the association may from time to time advocate, and which the Navy Department may authorize.
(E) Local Finance Committees.—Each enrolment committee shall appoint a local finance committee, the membership of which shall not be confined to members of the association. The function of each local finance committee shall be to raise funds to enable the local enrolment committee and local Naval Coast Defence Association or committee to carry on their work, and to provide funds to carry out the purposes of the association. Such local finance committees shall report to the central finance committee, and their accounts shall be subject to audit by the auditing committee.
(F) Other Committees.—The executive committee may appoint such other committees as may be deemed advisable from time to time to carry out the objects of the association.
III. Naval Coast Defence Section
With a view of obtaining the benefit of unity of purpose and concerted action associations heretofore or hereafter formed in any naval defence district to promote the naval training of civilians in connection with the naval defence of the coast, such as service with coast defence vessels, torpedo craft, mining vessels, patrol vessels, aircraft or as radio operators or other auxiliary services of the navy may, when approved by the governing committee or the executive committee, become affiliated with this association and together form the naval coast defence section of this association. Representation on the governing committee shall be afforded to such associations by the election of members thereof who may be qualified for membership in and who become members of this association. Such associations shall cooperate with the commandments of their respective naval defence districts in the formulation of plans for the enrolment and mobilization of such yachts, boats or aircraft, and for drills and instruction of their owners, operators and crews; they shall also cooperate with the local enrolment and finance committee.
In naval defence districts where no such associations shall have been formed, the governing committee or the executive committee may appoint one or more local committees from members of this association for the purposes above set forth.
IV. Meetings
The first annual meeting of the association shall be held not later than April I. 1917, the date and place of the meeting to be determined by the governing committee. Thereafter there shall be at least one meeting of the association annually, the dates and places to be determined by the governing committee.
The governing committee and all standing committees may adopt rules governing their respective action, copies of which shall be furnished to the executive secretary; and shall meet wherever and as often as each committee for itself shall determine.
At all annual meetings of the association 100 members, or their proxies, shall constitute a quorum.
At meetings of the governing committee 15 members shall constitute a quorum.
At meetings of all other committees such number shall constitute a quorum as each committee may for itself determine.
V. Debts and Obligations
No officer or member of the association shall incur any debt or contract any obligation in the name or on behalf of the association unless the executive committee shall, by resolution duly adopted, have authorized such debt or obligation. No expenditure shall be authorized by the executive committee or debt created or liability incurred unless (1) there be then in the treasury of the association funds to meet such appropriation, debt or liability, exclusive of liabilities already incurred; (2) there be then owing to the association collectible accounts sufficient to meet such liability; or (3) the amount of the appropriation, debt or liability is guaranteed in writing to the association by a person or persons of financial responsibility approved by the executive committee.
VI
No officer, employee or member of the association, nor any committee, or part thereof, shall make any statement for publication to the press or otherwise purporting to announce the policy of the association or its contemplated acts unless the executive committee shall so order.
VII
The annual dues for membership in this association shall be $1.00, payable on demand to the treasurer.
VIII
These by-laws may be amended by majority vote of the governing committee at a meeting or by mail.
HEADQUARTERS
NAVAL TRAINING ASSOCIATION OF UNITED STATES
34 Pine Street
New York, October 25, 1916
Hon. Josephus Daniels, Secretary of the Navy,
Washington, D. C.
Dear Sir:
Pursuant to resolutions adopted by the executive committee of the Naval Training Association of the United States. I beg to send you herewith a copy of the constitution and by-laws of the association, which was recently organized at a meeting held on October 18, in the city of New York, by delegates appointed from the civilian volunteers on each of the battleships which took part in the naval training cruise of 1916. The statement of purposes contained in the preamble briefly outlines the objects for which the association has been formed. The executive committee feels, however, that it is important that a plan for the future naval training of civilians should be presented to the Navy Department in order that consideration of the question may be promptly had and steps taken in the near future to prepare for what is to be done along these lines during the summer of 1917.
I have been directed to submit the following suggestions:
1. Almost a year ago certain civilians and officials of the Navy Department began to appreciate the necessity for civilian training as a part of national naval preparedness. This resulted in agitation for the first naval training cruise, which was held August 15 to September 12, 1916. It is highly important that a general plan governing the establishment and direction of future training cruises, schools or camps be considered, adopted and put into effect at an early date in order that ample notice of the details may be given to those-interested and that we may commence the enrolment of civilians for the training to be afforded next summer as soon as possible. We have already received many inquiries as to the arrangements for next summer, to which we are unable to make any reply, although we have recently been afforded an unexampled opportunity for publicity through the courtesy of the Military Training Camps Association, which has offered to permit us to include our literature with a pamphlet which it is preparing to send to more than 250,000 persons. With the idea that our suggestions may be of some assistance, the following outline is submitted for the consideration of the department:
(A) We believe that a progressive course of instruction should be established consisting of training during one month in each of three successive years. The training in each year to be as follows:
(1) First Year.—One month of training at shore stations, preferably the Naval Training Station at Newport; the Training Station on the Great Lakes and the Training Station at San Francisco; and, if possible, also at the Naval Academy at Annapolis; the course of drills and practical instruction to be very similar, if not identical, with that adopted for fourth class midshipmen, except that it shall include more hours of drill and instruction in view of the age and ability of the civilians who are likely to enroll. In this connection it is believed that the month's drill and instruction may be (at least toward the end' very much more advanced, and include practical instruction and drill usually given to midshipmen of higher classes.
(2) Second Year.—-That during the summer of 1917 all men who took part in the naval training cruise of 1916 (except those hereinafter referred to) and in the summer of 1918 and thereafter all men who complete the training provided for in paragraph (1) at the training station or Naval Academy, shall be given a month's training on vessels of the reserve force. In connection with the training to be given at the training stations as provided in paragraph (1) and on the vessels of the reserve force as provided in this paragraph (2), it is requested that a definite schedule of employment, drill and practical instruction be worked out and adopted well in advance of the time for the commencement of the training in the same manner and with the same degree of thoroughness as is now done with respect to the annual practice cruise for midshipmen. It is further suggested that a sufficient number of officers and drill petty officers, whose temperaments and known reputation and experience for this duty be assigned for the instruction of the civilians both at the training stations and at sea. From the experience gained during the past cruise, it is further suggested that the training of civilians be made the sole object during the period of the second year's course, and that an itinerary be worked out and announced well in advance which shall include about one week for embarkation, shaking down, holding emergency drills, boat drills, etc., followed by two weeks for a voyage to the Bermudas, the Danish West Indies or some other port requiring a sea passage of approximately one week and concluding with target practice to be held during the fourth and last week of the cruise.
(3) Third Year.—That during the year 1919, all men who have completed the second year course held during the summer of 1918 and during the summer of 1917, a substantial number of the men who took part in the training cruise of 1916 be selected from their standing as shown by their individual record cards, and that they be assigned in small groups to the most modern and efficient vessels of the active fleet and given the duty for which they have demonstrated particular capacity. It is believed that civilians who have taken the second year's cruise and such of the civilians who took part in the cruise of 1916 as may be selected during the summer of 19.17, will, within a few days become thoroughly amalgamated with the ship's regular crew and perform duties assigned to them without requiring special attention or extra duty on the part of the officers and men of the ship. During the summer of 1918 it is suggested that a substantial number of men who have taken part in the first year course during the summer of 1917 and demonstrated especial fitness, be assigned, as aforesaid, to vessels of the active fleet.
(B) Junior Training Schools or Camps.-—It is considered of the utmost importance in order to arouse the interest and enthusiasm of boys between the ages of 15 and 18 and with a view to stimulating an interest in the navy as an honorable career for the youth of the nation that schools or camps be established for boys between the ages of 15 and 18. Such training may well lead to a desire on the part of boys who have taken it to enter the Naval Academy and thus provide a valuable feeder for the academy and for the naval service. We believe that such schools or camps can be held at the Naval Training Station and at the Naval Academy at Annapolis for at least a month during each summer, either before or after the month devoted to the first year training of the senior section without interfering with the regular work of instruction carried on at the academy or training stations.
(C) It is further suggested that in order to enlist the interest of the students in the technical schools of the country in the general movement for naval preparedness, a plan be formulated which will provide a course, for which the technical schools will allow a certain academic credit, which shall include practical instruction during the vacation period of the schools on vessels of the reserve or active fleets, thereby securing the cooperation of the technical schools and their student bodies which will be of the greatest value to the navy.
(D) In view of the fact that nearly 2000 men took part in the cruise of 1916 and the practical certainty that at least 10.000 men can be enrolled for naval instruction during the summer of 1917, provided a detailed plan be adopted early enough to enable the enrolment committees to do their work properly, it is believed that the time is now ripe for the establishment in the Navy Department of an officer under the Chief of the Bureau of Navigation or elsewhere, as the department may decide, whose sole duty shall be to act as an intermediary between the department and the Naval Training Association of the United States. It is of the utmost importance in the enrolment of civilians that the officers of our association shall be able to confer at all times with a representative of the Navy Department who is familiar not only with our problems but with the requirements of the Navy Department. It will be necessary for such an officer to keep in touch with the activities of the enrolment committees which we propose to establish all over the country, and to assist us by making addresses and giving technical advice in regard to the many questions which we have found are constantly arising. Unless such an officer be appointed, we feel reasonably confident that the work of enrolment will be rendered infinitely more difficult and the work of our association less successful. In this connection the department's attention is specifically invited to the fact that Lieutenant John N. Ferguson, recently an aide on Admiral Helm's staff, has been in close contact with the movement from its inception and participated in the cruise of 1916; that he is in sympathy with the objects and aims of the association; that he is familiar with all of the work that has this far been done, and is personally acquainted with many of the officers and members of the association, and we respectfully recommend that, if possible, Lieutenant Ferguson be appointed for the purposes above mentioned.
All of which is respectfully submitted.
(Signed) Thomas Newhall, Secretary.
Note.—The U. S. Naval Institute expects to publish in the February, 1917 Proceedings a comprehensive article by Lieutenant Commander W. B. Tardy, U. S. N., on the general subject of naval training and the naval training cruise; the preliminary plans for the 1917 training period will be discussed. J. W. G.
ORDNANCE AND GUNNERY
Sensitiveness to Detonation of Trinitrotoluene.—The high prices of mercury, wanted for the fulminate detonators of high explosives, have called forth a search for substitutes for the mercury fulminate. This fulminate is commonly mixed with potassium chlorate or with lead azide (PbN6), and trinitrotoluene (popularly known as TNT) and trinitromethylnitramine or tetranitromethylanilin (known as tetryl) can themselves to a certain extent be utilized as detonators. Papers on recent investigations of this problem have been published, chiefly in German periodicals. On behalf of the Bureau of Mines the question has been taken up by Messrs. G. B. Taylor and W. C. Cope (Technical Paper 145). They test in particular the suggestion of M. Giua (Gazzetta Chimica, July, 1915) that TNT could be made more powerful and also more sensitive by being mixed with tetryl. They fuse these two bodies together in various proportions, fill a copper shell, 5 mm. in diameter, with 0.4 gm. of the mixture, place the primer (fulminate with 10 per cent of potassium chlorate) on the top, force a perforated reinforcing cap (thin copper, 9 mm. long) into the shell by a pressureof 206 kg. per sq. cm. for a minute, crimp the fuse into the shell and apply the sand test of C. G. Storm and Cope (Technical Paper 125). In this test the shell is buried in 100 gm. of sand contained in a steel cylinder (bored block of steel), and after firing they screen the sand (which had previously been screened) to find out how much will pass through a 30-mesh screen. A series of experiments are made to ascertain the minimum weight of fulminate that will effect complete detonation of the high explosives. When a small crushing effect was observed some unexploded TNT or tetryl was always found. It resulted that about 0.32 gm. of fulminate and chlorate are wanted fully to explode 0.4 gm. of the high explosives, and that TNT is not only less sensitive than tetryl, but also much more liable to become insensitive by the presence of moisture. The pure TNT failed to detonate when it had taken up 0.003 gm. of moisture, simply by being stored over water. Further experiments are to follow.—Engineering, 17/11.
ENGINEERING
Alquist Gearing for Ship Propulsion.—Alquist gearing has been applied to about 72 sets where steam turbines drive electric generators of various types. Contracts have been closed for machinery for the propulsion of 70 ships aggregating 215,200 horse-power. Some of these electric generating sets have been in service one and one-half years, and about seven of the ship sets are in service, some of them having made many long voyages. Among these are high pressure cruising units for the battleship Nevada which have been in service for some time and shown very fine results. Among the ship equipments not yet completed are included the propelling machinery for destroyer No. 69, built at Mare Island, and new propelling machinery for the scout cruiser Salem. In all of this practical experience no case of trouble with gearing has developed and no appreciable deterioration of gears has been observed.
One of the important reasons for adopting this type of gearing was that its design tended to afford a distribution of strains and means by which excessive strains would not be imposed upon any part through slight imperfections, distortions, or inaccuracies. The uniform success which has been accomplished with an entirely new product shows that this expectation has been amply justified. Some of the gears which have been used have been very imperfect, both in the matter of material and workmanship, and have been used under extremely trying conditions. That they have not failed has afforded the strongest evidence of the general reliability of the method.
The character of construction used in this gearing is shown by the drawings, Fig. 2. The gear is built up of a number of plates machined to a form which gives them the desired degree of lateral flexibility. These plates are put together, engaging solidly at the hub and also engaging on a narrow edge at the periphery. When so built together they form a solid cylinder which can be spirally cut in the ordinary manner. After cutting, the edge engagements are relieved with a small dividing tool so that each disk operates independently and is free to deflect latterly under the side pressure which results from its diagonal engagement with the pinion. The parts are so proportioned that this lateral deflection can at no time involve fiber strains which could possibly cause destructive fatigue. A very small amount of this lateral deflection is sufficient to afford the desired distribution of load, and this amount can easily be given without approaching dangerous periodic strains.
With gearing of the Alquist type we can use very small teeth without any danger of incurring excessive strains on individual teeth, which might involve risk of the development of fatigue cracks. In this connection it should be borne in mind that experiments have shown that the strongest steel, if subjected to periodic deflections, will break after a fiber strain of 20,000 pounds per square inch has been applied a million or more times.
In the work which is now being done by the General Electric Company, gears of the type described are applied in three ways. First, a single reduction has been accomplished by engaging one solid pinion with a flexible gear of this type; second, by engaging a solid pinion with two flexible idlers, which idlers in turn engage with a solid large gear; and third, in a double reduction where a solid, high-speed pinion engages flexible gears on two countershafts, these countershafts carrying solid pinions, both of which engage a flexible gear on the same low-speed shaft. In these two latter applications the flexibility of the gears serves to equalize the loads between all of the driving points, and the use of a plurality of driving points on the large gear reduces the length of face necessary on that gear. These different methods of application are illustrated by diagrams in Fig. 3.
In both of these cases where a single high-speed pinion drives two flexible gears, other very positive advantages are accomplished. The pinion is relieved of bending strains, and pressure on the high-speed bearings is avoided.
Experiments have been made in Schenectady which carefully analyze the losses of high-speed gears under various conditions of load and pressure, and these experiments have indicated that low peripheral speeds are more efficient than high speeds. With solid gears low speeds involve difficulties because they diminish pinion diameters and increase pinion lengths, thus complicating the troubles which may arise through deflection and torsion of pinions and pressure upon pinion bearings. Since the flexibility of Alquist gears enables us to compensate easily for all possible degrees of torsional yield in the pinion, we can with such gears safely reduce peripheral speeds by making the gears longer and of smaller diameter. Such reductions of diameter diminish weight and improve efficiency, and the fact that the Alquist method makes such reductions possible constitutes one of its important advantages.—Marine Engineering, December.
Recent Criticism of Marine Engines.—A new factor has been introduced into the much-debated question of marine engines by the successful Transatlantic voyage of the motor tank ship Hamlet, a vessel of 10,000 tons displacement, (7000 tons deadweight cargo, including fuel) equipped with two-stroke Diesel engines, made by the Polar Diesel Engine Co., of Stockholm. There are two sets of single-acting six-cylinder two-stroke cycle type engines of a combined indicated horse-power of about 4700. A leading feature is the fact that a large proportion of the auxiliary machinery is driven off the main engines.
The success of the Hamlet appears to confirm the claim that the Diesel and semi-Diesels are quite practicable for large mercantile steamers. The subject of marine engines has been left in such an unsatisfactory position by the clash of opinions that we purpose to review briefly the actual state of affairs, even if our synopsis fails to carry the argument much further. The one point to be borne in mind is that regardless of private interests or vested capital, the ships that we build ought to have the best engines possible if they are to maintain our maritime supremacy against all comers.
Simple though the proposition appears, it has been made complicated in consequence of difference of craft, difference of trading conditions, and difference in the facilities of fuel supply. . If initial cost were the sole standard, the steam set, in consequence of the larger demand, might represent the most attractive form of manufacture. Yet the oil engine is cheaper to build, and if it were standardized, a first-class engine of 100 brake horse-power might be placed on the market at a price substantially under £1000. Higher powers would be priced in proportion, according to the forecasts commonly advanced.
This contest between oil and coal, like the contest between electricity and gas, appears likely to go on until it is seen that the world is wide enough for both. Regard for the splendid service yielded by the steam engine must not be allowed to obscure our appreciation of the many excellences of design in British Diesels. Concerning defects some printed observations were made at the Junior Institution of Engineers recently to the effect that the common occurrence of broken crankshafts, sized pistons, and similar accidents, probably proceed as a rule from the over-steaming of cranks and the excessive heating of pistons, due to the frequent over-rating of the permissible output of power from given cylinder dimensions. As a consequence of this error (for which the speaker blamed the buyer) some engines balanced under conditions verging upon overload, so that reduction of the load originally contemplated became necessary to avoid breakdown.
Having regard to such circumstances as these, it is contended that the Diesel has not enjoyed the vogue which its thermal efficiency and general reliability would justify. This brings us to the vexed question of overload capacity, and serves to recall the fact that the limit of power in an internal combustion engine cylinder is definitely established and recognized. The claim is made that, according to experience, a rated output of about 10 per cent of the permissible maximum in an overload rating of Diesel engines is sound and convenient.
The strongest criticism which has come under our notice of late is that of Captain Sankey and Professor Burstall at some recent proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. They do not believe in the Diesel engine, and we are bound to say that the Institution shelters other people of the same belief. They do not care for the high pressures. If we turn to the semi-Diesel (which is a semi-Diesel only in name) we find that the speakers regard it as approaching the original in efficiency at moderate compression pressures, and that it possesses other advantages, some of which are not specially important to the marine engines.
A different story was unfolded by Sir James Mills, K. C. M. G., at the Institute of Marine Engineers in September He said that perhaps the most remarkable development of modern times is the internal combustion engine, in which reliability can be associated with economy in fuel. The Diesel type of engine, he added, has already been fairly well tested in merchant ships of moderate capacity, and he looked forward to the advent of ships of large size and greater power now being built to provide a convincing test of what can be done in the way of high power in the commercial engines of the Diesel system. It was fair to assume that if the anticipations of the constructors of the ships were realized, steam-driven vessels might be compelled to take a secondary place among the mercantile navies of the world in a few years' time.
What conclusion follows from the various opinions? The obvious conclusion is that neither the Diesel nor the semi-Diesel can be as bad as some people contended, and that the really good points may be expected to develop, as they developed in the steam engine. Our own impression is that both will stay in marine service.
A great deal has been said regarding the use of Diesel engines on war vessels. Here the question of cost is subordinate to other considerations, but as the latter relate to efficiency they are appropriate to this article. Some hundreds of the high-speed naval type of engine have been constructed, the powers per shaft being slightly under 1000 horse-power as a rule, and the powers per cylinder varying from 100 to 150 brake horsepower. Higher powers have been employed in a number of instances. Modern destroyers are generally oil fired. It must be remembered that as speed is the great essential of such vessels, lightness and compactness of machinery are necessary. Steam propelling machinery with auxiliaries weighs from 27 pounds to 35 pounds per shaft horse-power, whereas the lightest Diesels weigh without auxiliaries about 56 pounds per brake horse-power.
The installations could be compared only if the weight of machinery plus fuel for a given displacement, speed and radius of action are approximately the same in both cases. Calculations have been made to show that only when the power is comparatively small, and the weight of fuel on board exceeds that carried at present, could Diesel engines be installed in torpedo craft or light cruisers.
Under certain conditions Diesel engines for propelling battleships are regarded as possibilities, although their adoption is spoken of as being likely to wait until the engines increase in size. For the surface propulsion of submarines the Diesel proves itself well fitted. The power required not being excessive, space can be found for the installation and the weight is not very great.
Generally speaking, the balance of engineering opinion is favorable to Diesel engines for emergency lights, dynamo and auxiliary machinery driving in large vessels, and for the propulsion of tank vessels, fleet auxiliaries and ordinary merchant vessels of moderate powers and speed. Large liners, like large warships, are classed with battleships and large cruisers in connection with this question. On every one of these points divergencies are common. Every case must be judged on its own merits and in accordance with the conditions of service in order to arrive at a fair comparison of the engines in use. At present many British ship-owners are unwilling to entertain the idea of the oil engine, either because they happen to be accustomed to the other sort or because the purchase of oil engines of the Diesel or semi-Diesel type is not placed upon a plane to commend itself to them. Nothing could better illustrate the uncertainty which prevails regarding the-choice of engines. The voyage of the Hamlet appears to be another installment of the case in favor of the Diesel system.— Page's Engineering Weekly, 3/11.
Distortion of Ships.—The expansion and contraction of metals when subjected to varying temperatures is well known, and generally adequate provision is made in the design and construction of machinery to permit this expansion and contraction to take place without stress or strain. In marine engineering many striking examples of such provisions can be found.
Where integral parts of machinery are subject to varying temperatures, the designer's provisions for the free expansion and contraction of the metal prevent distortion and troublesome consequences; but where the integral parts are subjected to uneven temperatures, the expansion and contraction is not uniform and distortion is inevitable. Even in such cases the distortion produces little or no harm provided ample clearance is allowed and such machinery is intelligently operated. Cylinders and cylinder heads of reciprocating engines, and turbine casings and rotors are most striking examples of machinery subject to such distortion.
The hull of a ship, unlike its machinery and piping, is not designed or constructed to permit freely the uneven expansion and contraction of its frames and plating other than by the general flexibility of the structure itself. As the varying and uneven temperatures to which the frames and plating are subjected are of comparatively small range, little thought is given to the distortion which may occur: and as casual investigations reveal no evil physical effects it is assumed that such distortion as may occur can be considered as negligible. This is quite true where the ship is water borne and the under-water portion of the hull is subjected to the practically uniform temperature of the sea water. When the ship is in a dry-dock, however, conditions are quite different; and the distortions that take place daily prove at times very annoying.
In aligning long sections of shafting in dry-dock, the alignment is often found to be seriously deranged upon undocking. This condition was formerly attributed either to the improper placing of the keel block, or to the poor workmanship of aligning the sections, or to both. Undoubtedly in some cases the improper placing of keel blocks is principally responsible, and, to a certain extent, the poor workmanship; but in general such derangement is primarily and most frequently caused by the daily distortion of the hull brought by the sun's rays while the ship was in dry-dock. Obviously, with the top deck, especially if of steel, and one side of the ship exposed to the sun, these portions will expand more than those portions not presented to the sun. Distortion occurs; both stem and stern will droop and at the same time be forced out of their normal vertical plane and away from the sun. Recent investigations have shown that these distortions are frequently of such a value that they cannot be ignored. A series of investigations was conducted on ships in and out of dry-dock, and the following general results were obtained:
Ships in Dry-dock.— (a) Greatest deflection of stem and stern in a horizontal plane when ship's heading was at or near right angles to the sun.
(b) Greatest droop of stem and stern where sun was on or near the meridian and at high altitudes.
(c) In every case under investigation where the ship was steel decked the droop was much greater than the deflection.
(d) Investigations on days when the sky was overcast revealed no deflections.
(e) No deflections were permanent.
Ships out of Dry-dock.— (a) Practically the same results were obtained on ships out of dry-dock, except that deflections in general were of very small values, although in some cases the droop was found considerable.
In the foregoing no values are set forth, as the figures obtained depended upon the type and size of ship and the difference in temperature to which the various portions of the ship were subjected. Deflections of 3/64 inch were common in the horizontal plane and as high as % inch in the vertical plane. Greater deflections were found on larger ships.
From these investigations the following conclusions were drawn:
(a) Where exact alignment of long shafting must be done in dry-dock, all boring and alignment should be done on days when the sky is overcast.
(b) Where this is not practicable, allow increasing clearances as bearings approach either the stem or stern of the ship.
(c) In so far as possible line shafting should not be coupled up until the ship is undocked. Such derangement in the alignment as is then found can be eliminated in the couplings and spring bearings.—Scientific American, 9/12.
Wind Resistance of Ships.—Naval Constructor William McEntee, U. S. N., in a paper published in Marine Engineering, gives the results of tests made in the wind tunnel at the Washington Navy Yard on a model of the collier Neptune. The tests indicated that the vessel steaming into a 30-mile head wind at 14 knots would require about 770 effective horsepower to overcome the wind resistance, which is about 20 per cent of the power required to overcome the water resistance alone. If the power developed by the engines was not increased, this additional resistance of the wind would cause a reduction in speed of about 1.9 knots. In a general way the results of the test in the wind tunnel confirm the results obtained on the trials of the vessel, though exact comparison is impossible because of lack of accurate observation of wind velocity at the time of the trials. The Neptune was selected for test because of the large above-water area offered by the coaling booms and other top hamper.
The Isherwood System of Ship Construction.—The Naval Institute has obtained from the Licensor of the Isherwood system an outline of the distinguishing features of the system. "Isherwood" ships are built under license issued by the owner of the patents. The system provides for framing on the longitudinal system. The transverse frames are widely spaced, about 12 feet as compared to from two to three feet in the usual transverse ship, and are made of not less strength than the number of transverse frames that are fitted in ordinary vessels for a corresponding length of ship. Longitudinals are continuous and closely spaced. Decks and side plates are directly riveted to frames and to the longitudinal stiffeners. The advantages claimed are great increase in longitudinal strength, prevention of deck damage through buckling owing to the support given to the plating by continuous longitudinals, increased cargo capacity on account of the floor being carried flat to the side of the vessel and the absence of beam knees between transverses, and increased dead weight capacity through saving in weight of structural material. The licensor states that a large number of merchant ships now in service are built under Isherwood patents.
SUBMARINES
The "Deutschland."—The Deutschland sailed from New London on November 17, and- while passing through the Race collided with one of the two tugs accompanying her as guard boats, sinking the tug with the loss of five of the crew. The submarine returned to New London with her bow damaged. She was soon repaired, and sailed again on November 21, and arrived at a German port on December 10. The Deutschland was libeled at New London for damages arising out of her collision and gave bond. The times of her transatlantic crossings are of interest, the westward trips taking 16 days and 21 days respectively, while the eastward passage was made in 23 days from Baltimore and 19 days from New London.
Submarine Remains Fifty-five Days Out.—A record achievement is chronicled of a German submarine which has returned to its base after 55 days at sea, without entering harbor or receiving outside assistance of any form. The weather generally was bad.—New York Herald.
AERONAUTICS
Changes in Aeronautical Nomenclature.—The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics has recommended the following additions and changes in aeronautical nomenclature. This is supplementary to the committee's original report published in No. 166 of the Proceedings.
The question of what is a right-hand engine has occasioned a great deal of comment in the aeronautic industry, and in order to associate the words "right-hand" and "clockwise," the definition of a right-hand engine has been amended to read:
"A right-hand engine is one in which, when viewed from the output shaft, looking toward the output shaft end, the shaft is seen to rotate clockwise."
As it appeared necessary, on further consideration, to differentiate between aircraft designed for operation from land and those designed for operation from water, the committee adopted the term "seaplane" for airplanes in which the landing gear is suited to operation from the water. The term "airplane" is commonly used in a more restricted sense to refer to airplanes fitted with landing gear suited to operation from the land.
For "dihedral in an airplane" the committee adopted the following definition:
"The angle included at the intersection of the imaginary surfaces containing the chords of the right and left wings (continued to the plane of symmetry if necessary). This angle is measured in a plane perpendicular to that intersection. The dihedral of the upper wing may, and frequently does, differ from that of the lower wing in a biplane."
Metric System in Aeronautical Design.—Washington, D. C, December 7, 1916. At the regular monthly meeting of the Executive Committee of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics to-day, the committee adopted the Metric System as its standard, so far as the work of the committee is concerned, and recommendations will be sent to the various departments of the government that this system be adopted in connection with all matters pertaining to aeronautics. The War Department will put this change into effect immediately in its Aviation Section, using both the Metric and English systems on all drawings for a time.
"Blimps."—Combination Dirigible-Aeroplane.—Captain Thomas S. Baldwin, writing recently in the Aerial Age Weekly, states that a new type of dirigible is being developed in Europe, which will probably be built in this country in the near future. This consists of what is practically an aeroplane fuselage with its motor and propeller supported by the gas bag about 130 to 150 feet long and about 30 feet in diameter at the widest point, containing places for four passengers, fuel for six hours and making a speed of 60 miles an hour, with ability to climb to an altitude of 3000 feet. These small dirigibles can be built for about $12,000. These "Blimps," one of which was illustrated in a recent issue of the Scientific American, are used in England for military work, and are part of the new aerial program for 1917, which, it is said, promises the building of 50 airships of both rigid and non-rigid types.—Scientific American.
Knox Motor Tested.—The first formal test of the 300 horse-power Knox aeronautic motor has been held at the company's Springfield (Mass.) factory laboratory. This is said to be the first aeronautic motor of such power ever built. The motor complete, including electric starting, electric lighting, tachometer (showing propeller speeds), exhaust pipes, ignition apparatus and provision for driving wireless telegraph apparatus, weighs 1400 pounds. It has been run for a period of eight hours, in which its rated 300 horse-power was exhibited during the last hour. The test was carried out on the company's Sprague electric dynamometer of 500 horse-power capacity. The motor has a specially designed propeller hub to accommodate various thicknesses and types of propellers. Nickel and vanadium steels are used throughout, and special aluminum alloys are used in all of the aluminum parts. The urgent need for a motor of this type was strongly emphasized at the meeting of the Executive Committee of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics held in Washington last June.—Army and Navy Journal, 2/12.
Construction of Kite Balloons.—The kite balloon, now in general use in the European armies, is merely a combination of two principles, one nearly as old as civilization itself, the other discovered over a century ago. Neither principle alone ever quite filled the bill. A man-lifting kite required a strong wind to fly it. An ordinary captive balloon on the other hand could only be flown in a comparative calm. But in the kite balloon we have a combination that can take care of either condition.
The apparatus is essentially an elongated balloon which is always kept in an inclined position like a kite. Thus the wind tends to lift it by blowing against the under side. This counteracts the contrary tendency of a wind to blow the balloon over toward the ground. Kite balloons are now recognized as essential in nearly all modern warfare on land and sea. They are superior to the old fashioned captive balloons; and even the airplane is ill suited to perform the kite balloon's particular function of range finding and general observation of the line.
Notwithstanding its great superiority over the spherical balloon, the kite balloon still left something to be desired in the matter of steadiness. Even when loaded with tail cups, the use of binoculars was difficult, and severe sea-sickness was an item to contend with. The highest wind in which good observation could be made was about 27 miles per hour. The resistance was also rather high. This carried the balloon over to a considerable angle, seriously limited the altitude attainable, and at the same time put a disproportionate strain on the cable.
Fig. 1 shows the standard European type of kite balloon. Its steadiness depends on the combined action of the "steering bag," a, and the "tail cups," b-b. Its resistance may be considered as made up of several parts:
-
- The resistance of the gas-bag itself, a function of its size and shape.
- The resistance of the steering bag, greatly augmented by the large opening at its front.
- The pull of the tail cups, determined by the number of them necessary to maintain a reasonable steadiness.
- The resistance of the cordage and basket.
- The resistance of the anchorage cable.
Fig. 2 shows the original model, made by the Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co., which was probably the first produced in this country. Here a modest attempt was made to increase the steadiness by increasing the effective lateral surface of the steering bag. It was also found possible by proper design to cut down considerably the amount of cordage previously used, thus effecting a slight increase in resistance.
Experience with this type of balloon however, showed that a radical departure in design was necessary if any marked improvement over the existing forms was to be achieved. A basic study was made of each different part. Numerous experiments, failures and successes pointed the way, and finally the results were combined and reduced to practical form in what is known as the Goodyear Kite Balloon. Its principal outstanding features may be seen in Fig. 3.
1. The shape of the gas-bag is so modified as to have a minimum resistance consistent with other requirements.
2. The steering bag is replaced by an air funnel, c, which is the only inflated protuberance on the balloon. This carries the keel, d, the tail cup, e, and has a valve at its lower end through which air enters to make good any deficiency in pressure. With this construction a comparatively small hole will supply all the air necessary to keep the balloon well inflated under all conditions.
3. The keel, like the funnel, is non-rigid, being supported entirely by a proper balance of forces. Its great advantage over the old steering bag is the fact that it presents a double concave surface to the wind so that it is held in the wind by a positive pressure on both sides at once. In this way any tendency to yaw is stopped almost before it starts. On the other hand, the old type of steering bag will allow considerable deflection or swing of the balloon before its corrective influence is felt. In addition to this the keel has only a small fraction of the resistance of the steering bag, is lighter in weight and is simpler in practical use. It will keep practically the form shown in Fig. 4, in any wind from a calm to 45 miles per hour.
4. The side fins indicated by g in Fig. 3 are so shaped and disposed that they help in the stability as well as in the kite effect of the balloon.
5. The function of the tail cups, e, has been reduced almost wholly to one of dampening the motion of the balloon in a gusty wind. Contrary to expectations, it was found that the form of construction of the tail cup was a considerable factor in its stability. Its present form which was adopted as a result of practical and wind tunnel experiments on numerous different designs is illustrated in Fig. 5.
6. The resistance was further cut down by making the balloon more nearly self contained and eliminating superfluous cordage and protuberances.
7. In other balloons it was found that the gas leakage through the valve and various appendices was commonly many times greater than all other sources of leakage combined. The valve was therefore designed especially to prevent leakage. Its size is more than ample for all requirements of captive or free balloon use. The air valves have also been made tighter and more efficient, thereby cutting down the quantity of air required to keep the balloon properly inflated.
8. For maximum efficiency the inclination of the balloon to the air must be calculated with considerable exactness. If it is inclined too much it carries the balloon over and puts an undue strain on the cable. On the other hand if the balloon is too nearly horizontal the lift of the wind is lost. There is a certain best inclination for each balloon at which it is perfectly steady, the pull on the cable is near a minimum and the altitude a maximum. In order to preserve this proper angle for different conditions of use, the basket is made adjustable so that it can be moved forward or back when necessary. In a 30 mile wind, there should be no motion apparent in the basket. The cable tension at the balloon should be less than 1000 pounds, and an altitude of 4000 feet readily attainable.— Aviation, 1/12.
LESSONS OF THE WAR
The Big Gun in the Big Ship.—There is nothing of the freakish or the phenomenal in the extraordinary growth in size of the battleship and the gun it carries. In every branch of engineering construction it has been proved that size—bigness—carries with it both economy and efficiency. The 50,000-ton merchant ship shows a greater earning capacity per ton of displacement than two ships of 25,000 tons. The 20-story office building gives a larger return on the investment than two 10-story buildings on separate plots. The mammoth freight engine of 1916, equal in weight to three such of 20 years ago, will haul freight at a fraction of what it cost per ton when three units were necessary to perform the same duty.
Therefore we must be prepared to see a steady increase in the size of the battleship of the future and in the weight and power of its guns. The theory (always attractive, not merely to the layman but to many naval experts) that many small ships would prove superior to a few large ships, has been disproved both in theory and practice. The present war has laid that illusion, if not for all time, at least for the present era.
Size, thick armor and the big gun, as combined in the modern dreadnought, constitute the supreme controlling factor in naval warfare. The bigger the ship, the thicker her armor, and the more mighty her guns, the more completely will she dominate the naval situation.
One of the most dramatic and instructive phases of the present naval war occurred during the battle of Jutland, when the steering gear of the Warspite (of the Queen Elisabeth class) gave way and she swung over toward the German battleship line and began to circle. The Germans were quick to appreciate the situation, and seized the opportunity to sink this crack ship. They turned upon her every gun from a half a dozen of their dreadnoughts, and immediately the salvos of 11-inch and 12-inch shells began to straddle her. Such was the fury of this attack, that an officer of the ship declares it was impossible to see the enemy because of the masses of water thrown up by such shells as fell short, the whole sea around the Warspite being lashed by heavy projectiles. She was hammered unmercifully, and by all the rules of the game should have gone down, a hopeless wreck. But the Warspite did not sink. Very much to the contrary, under that tremendous fire her engineers set right the steering gear and she reached a home port practically intact so far as her vitals were concerned, and before long she returned to take her place in the first line.
Contrast this with what happened to three of the lightly-armored British cruisers, whose nine inches of steel failed to keep out the German 11- and 12-inch shells. Three of these ships were sunk before the fight was many hours old; and they were put down, not by the torpedo, but by the gun. Compare this with the way in which the heavily-armored (n- to 12-inch Krupp plate) German battle cruisers stood up against the fire of the 13.5inch guns carried by the battle cruisers of Admiral Beatty's squadron.
It begins to look as though the type of ship developed by the experience of the war will be a combination of battleship and battle cruiser, possessing the gun power and heavy armor of the one and the high speed of the other. Manifestly the first, absolutely the first requirement in a ship of the first line is that she shall stay afloat; and this means armor, thick and plentiful and elaborate subdivision. It was this that saved the German battle cruisers, and it was her 13 ¼-inch armor that brought the Warspite through. But not only must the battleship stay afloat—she must put the other ship under; and this calls for a gun so heavy that no armor that the enemy can carry will stop the shells that strike.
But armor of maximum thickness plus guns of maximum power spells a ship of maximum displacement. Hence we are disposed to credit the frequent statements by correspondents who have visited the British dockyards, that Great Britain is rushing to completion a division of ships which will mount a battery of 18-inch guns, will be protected by armor and a system of subdivision far exceeding that of any ship now afloat, and will displace 40,000 tons. Such a ship would be the logical outcome of the experience gained during this war. Her 3000-pound projectiles, carrying not less than 300 pounds of high explosive (equal to that of the modern torpedo) would be capable of penetrating any armor now carried, and its wrecking effect inside the ship would be conceivably greater than that of the torpedo.
It is too late to change the plans of the four United States battleships of this year's program, which will mount 10 16-inch guns; but prudence suggests that we should at once build a test gun of 18 to 20 inches caliber, and get out designs for a ship that shall carry at least eight and preferably 10 of them in her main battery.—Scientific American, 18/11.
MERCHANT MARINE
Eleven Months of American Shipbuilding.—The Bureau of Navigation. Department of Commerce, reports 1066 sailing, steam, gas, and unrigged vessels of 488,446 gross tons built in the United States and officially numbered during the n months of calendar year 1916. In addition to the above, there were built for foreigners 36 wooden vessels of 372 gross tons, and 13 steel vessels of 33,265 gross tons; total. 49 vessels of 33,637 gross tons.
Austrian Shipbuilding.—According to the Neue Freie Presse, the Austrian Lloyd is continuing to make additions to its fleet, notwithstanding the fact that Austrian shipping has come to a standstill during the war. If this account is to be accepted, there are now under construction for this company 17 steamers of a total of 150,000 tons. Four of these, of 8000 tons each and with accommodation for 250 passengers, are being built at the company's own arsenal, and five vessels, of 10,000 tons each, are being built at the San Rocco Shipyard, while the remaining eight ships of 8500 tons each, are being built elsewhere.—Shipping Illustrated, 2/12.
Losses of Merchant Ships.—Shipping Illustrated gives the losses of merchant ships during November as 120, of 285,357 gross tons, with returns incomplete.