Morning light was just beginning to emerge over Manila Bay as Rear Admiral Francis Rockwell stood staring calmly at the brightening sky from his headquarters building near the Cavite Navy Yard. “They ought to be here any minute,” he told a subordinate.1 The grim-faced admiral was referring to the Japanese bombers he believed would be arriving. Only hours earlier his command had received an ominous message from his immediate superior, U.S. Asiatic Fleet commander Admiral Thomas Hart: “Japan started hostilities. Govern yourselves accordingly.”2
It was 8 December 1941. Nearly 5,100 miles to the east—across the International Date Line—Japanese naval and air forces had launched a surprise attack on the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The 55-year-old Rockwell commanded the Sixteenth Naval District, a geographic area covering the Philippines that included an assortment of naval facilities and some local defense forces.
On the eve of war, the Philippines was an isolated U.S. outpost in the western Pacific. The territory was nearly surrounded by Japanese possessions to the north, west, and east. A region rich in oil and other natural resources under British and Dutch control—long coveted by imperial Japan—was positioned directly to the south, and the United States expected the Philippines to be on the front lines of any conflict with Japan. Air bases on Formosa gave Japanese bombers sufficient range to strike much of the northern and central Philippines, including most major U.S. military installations. War Department officials in Washington had been rushing to increase U.S. strength in the territory, but the forces under the leadership of Army General Douglas MacArthur were not yet sufficient to withstand a full Japanese attack.
Target: The Asiatic Fleet
The Cavite Navy Yard and adjacent facilities served as the operational home of the U.S. Asiatic Fleet and together constituted the Navy’s largest base in the Pacific west of Pearl Harbor. The naval station occupied a narrow finger of land known as Sangley Point that jutted out into Manila Bay a short distance southeast of the capital city of Manila. The peninsula had been used for military purposes dating to Spanish colonial days, but decades of U.S. investment converted the area into a modern base, comprising a naval hospital, repair facilities, an ammunition-storage depot, officers’ quarters, docks, and fuel-storage tanks. Many buildings were constructed of wood and metal and packed closely together in the confined area. A thick-walled fortress-like structure known as the Commandantia, built by the Spanish, served as Rockwell’s headquarters. A sizeable number of local Filipino residents worked at the base. The city of Cavite was immediately adjacent to the naval installations.
The admiral harbored grave concerns about defending Sangley Point, owing to the large concentration of oil and ammunition supplies coupled with inadequate air-defense weaponry. “It was truly an aviator’s dream of a perfect target for fragmentation and incendiary bombs,” Rockwell later wrote. “Protection consisted solely of three obsolete four-gun 3”/50 AA batteries plus AA machine guns and the ship-bourne [sic] guns at the waterfront. The water level prevented digging even slit trenches deeper than two or three feet.”3
War clouds already were gaining strength when Rockwell assumed command of the district in late 1941, and he was taking active steps to prepare the Sangley Point area for an enemy attack by the end of November. Sandbags were placed around critical buildings, air-raid drills took place on a regular basis, and work halted on all noncritical jobs at the navy yard to focus on getting the ships in port ready for sea. Plans were under development to disperse some of the fuel and ammunition stores to various points around the area. Rockwell instituted a state of readiness after meeting with Admiral Hart on 4 December. “Total blackouts were ordered, the AA guns were authorized to open fire on unidentified planes, and every effort made to be ready for the opening of hostilities,” he recorded.
The start of war brought a flurry of activity to Rockwell’s headquarters. A torrent of reports announced Japanese attacks on U.S. and Allied territories across the Pacific, including Guam, Wake Island, and British Malaya. Rockwell ordered his torpedo boats to move out of the Navy base, directed subordinates to begin transferring fuel oil into drums for placement on barges to be towed out into Manila Bay, and began destroying secret documents at his headquarters. Plans were drawn to begin evacuating civilians from the adjacent cities of Cavite and San Roque within the next few days.
On the morning of 8 December, fog shrouded Japanese airfields on Formosa, delaying the start of air operations against the Philippines. Once the weather lifted, however, the Japanese unleashed a string of air attacks targeting U.S. air bases on the main Philippine island of Luzon. Over the next two days, General MacArthur’s air forces suffered a series of devastating defeats, allowing the Japanese to gain air superiority. Most notable was an attack on Clark Field northwest of Manila, where a large number of U.S. planes were destroyed.4 Admiral Rockwell’s naval facilities on Sangley Point had thus far escaped attack, but that was about to change.
The fog dissipated quickly on Formosa during the morning of 10 December, allowing a large group of naval planes, numbering about 52 A6M Zero fighters and more than 80 bombers, to take off at approximately 1000 headed south across Luzon.5 Thirty-five U.S. fighters rose to challenge the attackers but were overwhelmed by the escorting Zeros. No U.S. fighter planes were available to protect the sky over the naval facilities farther south on Sangley Point.
A Two-Prong Attack
The Japanese air armada divided into two groups north of Manila, with one moving to attack airfields and Army installations near the capital. The second, composed of 54 bombers, continued south toward Sangley Point. Half the bombers soon turned off to attack ships in Manila Bay, while the remaining 27 continued toward Cavite.
The Cavite base was full of activity that day. The small river gunboat USS Mindanao (PR-8) had arrived from China during the morning after having been recalled to the Philippines by Admiral Hart. She was carrying some Japanese prisoners captured from a trawler during her voyage through the South China Sea. Two obsolete four-stack destroyers were moored at Central Wharf for repairs from a recent collision. The submarines USS Sealion (SS-195) and Seadragon (SS-194) were tied together, with the old minesweeper Bittern (AM-36) positioned at an adjacent pier. Other vessels in port included the large submarine tender Otus (ARG-20), minesweeper Quail (AM-15), submarine rescue ship Pigeon (ASR-21), and patrol yacht Isabel (PY-10). With them was the destroyer John D. Ford (DD-228), which had just arrived for a quick refueling and was not expected to be in port for long.
Navy personnel had been working feverishly since the start of the war to disperse some of the most volatile gasoline stores. Rockwell had picked Lieutenant Malcolm Champlin, a trusted subordinate, to lead the effort. A tug nudged a barge filled with more than 1,100 drums of 100-octane aviation fuel out into Manila Bay during the predawn hours. More barrels were being moved away from buildings to storage points on nearby beaches.
Officers at the Commandantia were aware of the various reports of Japanese planes in the area when the navy yard’s warning siren began to sound at 1235.6 False alarms had become a regular occurrence since the start of the war, but that would not be the case this time. The burning of secret documents had just been completed when the wailing siren sent Marines and sailors racing to their air-defense battle stations.
Base personnel soon were able to see the 27 Japanese bombers flying at high altitude in a large V formation, ominously approaching from the west across Manila Bay. The planes passed over the navy yard without dropping a single bomb and continued east while making a broad turn for a second run. The Japanese aviators apparently needed extra time to precisely line up the narrow target below. They soon returned to unleash a torrent of bombs. Antiaircraft fire from below was ineffective, as the obsolete small-caliber guns could not reach the 20,000-foot altitude of the bombers, allowing the attack to proceed at a leisurely pace. Gunners took aim at a single low-flying plane approaching from the direction of Manila, sending it into the bay. The aircraft, however, was a U.S. P-40 Warhawk fighter and ground-attack plane. A victim of mistaken identity, the unfortunate pilot was pulled to safety by a rescue party quickly dispatched from the navy yard. No other U.S. aircraft could be seen in the immediate area to challenge the attackers.
According to Rockwell’s war diary, the first bomb exploded at 1314. The navy yard and surrounding facilities came under intense attack for about an hour from the initial bombers, which later were joined by those that earlier attacked shipping in Manila Bay. The attackers most likely broke into smaller formations of nine planes because of the narrow scope of the target.7 The rain of destruction was carried out with deadly precision; strings of bombs hit nearly the full length of the peninsula, from the city of Cavite to the far piers. Explosions destroyed buildings, damaged ships, and maimed people.
Admiral Rockwell took cover with two Filipino navy yard workers in a shallow shelter ditch during the attack. Rockwell escaped unharmed, but the civilians were not so fortunate; one was killed and the second suffered serious injuries. “Both of these men were calm and in their assigned places for the air raids,” Rockwell was quoted as saying at the time.8
The Docks Aflame
The blasts set off vigorous fires that quickly spread across Sangley Point, eventually even setting the docks aflame. Ruptured oil tanks sent thick, black smoke billowing skyward. “Practically all bombs (including many fragmentation and incendiary) fell within the navy yard limits, and direct hits were made on the power plant, dispensary, torpedo repair shop, supply office and warehouses, signal station, commissary store, receiving station, barracks and officers’ quarters, and several ships, tugs, and barges along the waterfront,” Rockwell reported. “The entire yard and about one third of the city of Cavite was set ablaze from end to end, but fortunately no direct hit was made on the Naval Ammunition Depot itself which still contained much powder and ammunition.” A warehouse full of torpedoes took a direct bomb hit, resulting in a tremendous blast. Flames later reached a building storing small arms and ammunition, setting off a series of intermittent explosions.
Lieutenant Champlin was not on base when the attack started but jumped into his car and raced toward the navy yard as the bombs were falling. He encountered a flood of vehicles exiting, some carrying wounded, as he approached a bridge leading to the base. When two trucks collided in front of him, he jumped into the back of one to help move the wounded to private cars for evacuation to the hospital. Champlin eventually made it into the base, where he found Rockwell in a shelter near the Commandantia. The admiral’s shirt was covered in blood from helping to carry the wounded.9
Any vessel able to get under way from the navy yard during the attack headed toward the open waters of Manila Bay. Many, however, were trapped at their moorings. The Sealion was hit by two bombs and incurred extensive damage and flooding; she would never put to sea again. The adjacent Seadragon suffered a scorched hull and blistering paint from the intense heat generated by nearby fires. The submarine survived the attack and eventually had a long and decorated battle career during the war.10 The Pigeon escaped certain destruction when her alert skipper pulled away from the burning Sealion. The nearby Bittern sustained heavy damage from a combination of fire, near misses, and flying debris. The old minesweeper later was scuttled in Manila Bay.11 The destroyer USS Peary (DD-226), in port for repairs, was towed clear of burning danger before sustaining damage from a bomb.12
Admiral Hart felt powerless as he observed the attack on Cavite unfold from the Marsman Building in downtown Manila. Watching the columns of smoke rise, he did not have to see the carnage up close to know that his naval base had been totally destroyed.
A Burning Conflagration
The Japanese bombers departed the area after about an hour, leaving behind a burning conflagration. Evacuating the wounded and firefighting became top priority. The area was littered with bodies of the dead and dying. Among those killed was Private First Class Thomas Wetherington. He became the first of many Marines to lose their lives in the defense of the Philippines.13 The heroic efforts of U.S. servicemen and Filipino yard workers yielded little progress in containing the raging flames.
Torpedo boats were recalled during the afternoon hours to help in the rescue operation. The PT sailors, who returned to a hellish scene of fires, carnage, and devastation, transformed their boats into floating ambulances for transporting the wounded to area hospitals. “We could hardly keep on our feet, for blood is as slippery as crude oil—and the aprons of the hospital attendants were so blood-spattered they looked like butchers,” recalled torpedo-boat commander Lieutenant John D. Bulkeley.14
The firefighting continued into the evening hours, but the effort could not bring the flames under control. “Every effort was made to keep the fires away from the Naval Ammunition Depot and the few buildings which were still standing (including the Commandantia) but frequent shifts of wind, lack of equipment, loss of the power house and fire mains made this impossible,” Rockwell wrote. The admiral feared a massive explosion would add to the destruction.
“Late that night, when it seemed probable that the Naval Ammunition Depot might catch fire and explode, orders were given to evacuate the yard, and all personnel were gathered in the public school enclosure at San Roque leaving an armed guard at the causeway,” Rockwell continued. The guards were under orders to prevent anyone—military or civilian—from returning to the burning base. Evacuated personnel set up camp for the night at an elementary school.
Rockwell thought his subordinates showed courage under the most trying conditions. “The conduct of all officers and men, not only during the initial bombing but throughout the very difficult period which followed, was of the highest order and fully in keeping with the best traditions of the service,” he later wrote. “The conduct of the navy yard employees, most of whom were native Filipinos, was also worthy of special commendation.” The admiral estimated that some 500 people were killed or seriously wounded in the attack.
Morning light on 11 December revealed the fires still burning out of control. Daytime also showed the full extent of the damage. The entire base was virtually demolished; Rockwell confirmed as much with an on-site inspection and deemed it too dangerous for large numbers of personnel to reenter the base. Back in Manila, Admiral Hart came to the sobering realization that his only major operating base was gone. After reviewing initial damage reports, considering Japanese air superiority, and conferring with Rockwell, he ordered Cavite to be abandoned and reported to officials in Washington that the Manila area was untenable for further naval operations. He directed a salvage operation to take place at Cavite when feasible. Any supplies and materials that could be saved were to be transferred to other areas.
Shore-based personnel began to move through the main gate of the navy yard the next day to begin cleanup and salvage work. Remaining supplies and materials were transferred across Manila Bay to a small base at Mariveles on the southern tip of the Bataan Peninsula and to Corregidor. The latter fortified island also would serve as Rockwell’s new headquarters. “With no electric light or power, little fresh water, and scant provisions, the men worked from daylight until dark on two meals a day, and stood security watches all night,” Rockwell later wrote of the salvage effort. A trench near the Commandantia was prepared by a bulldozer to serve as a mass grave for civilians. Close to 250 bodies—some arriving in dump trucks—were covered over.15
Enemy bombers again struck Cavite on 19 December, destroying many of the remaining buildings and setting a new round of fires. Japanese occupiers eventually took control of the naval facilities as U.S. and Filipino forces retreated to the Bataan Peninsula. The last defenders surrendered in May 1942, giving the Japanese complete control of the Philippines. Admiral Rockwell had been among a small group of senior officers to accompany General MacArthur on a daring escape from the Philippines in March 1942. Rockwell later served in the North Pacific and Atlantic theaters during the remaining years of World War II.
1. William L. White, They Were Expendable (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1942), 8.
2. War Diary, Sixteenth Naval District, 8 December 1941, National Archives.
3. RADM F. W. Rockwell to CinC, U.S. Fleet, “Narrative of Naval Activities in Luzon Area, December 1, 1941 to March 9, 1942,” 1 August 1942, 3, National Archives.
4. Clayton Chun and Howard Gerrard, The Fall of the Philippines 1941–42 (Oxford, UK: Osprey, 2012), 38–39.
5. Samuel Eliot Morison, The Rising Sun in the Pacific, vol. 3, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II (Edison, NJ: Castle Books, 2001), 171.
6. War Diary, Sixteenth Naval District, 10 December 1941.
7. John Gordon, Fighting for MacArthur: The Navy and Marine Corps’ Desperate Defense of the Philippines (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2011), 55.
8. H. F. Wilkins, “Admiral at Cavite Narrowly Escapes Bomb; Filipino at His Side in Shelter Ditch is Killed,” The New York Times, 15 December 1941.
9. John Toland, But Not in Shame: The Six Months after Pearl Harbor (New York: Random House, 1961), 68.
10. “Seadragon” in Dictionary of American Fighting Ships, https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/s/seadragon-i.html, 1.
11. “Bittern” in Dictionary of American Fighting Ships, https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/b/bittern-i.html, 1.
12. Morison, Rising Sun, 172.
13. Bill Sloan, Undefeated: America’s Heroic Fight for Bataan and Corregidor (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012), 43.
14. White, Expendable, 19.
15. Michael J. Miller, “From Shanghai to Corregidor: Marines in the Defense of the Philippines,” www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/npswapa/extcontent/usmc/pcn-190-003140-00/sec5.htm, 1.